The thesis explores the formation and development of agricultural production co-operativesin the context of market socialist transition. It examines how changes in the organisation ofproduction and reproduction affected gender relations. At the same time, it explores the waysin which the prevailing relationships between men and women provided incentives andcreated patterns for economic development. State socialist emancipatory rhetoric aimed atdeveloping a 'humanised' society. Humanisation was to come about through participation insocialist wage labour, while the functions of the family household were to shrink and giveway to the all-pervasive expansion of the state. These two principles were common in thestate socialist projects of agricultural collectivisation and of women's emancipation. However, the proletarianisation of the peasantry could not be accomplished due to the stubbornresistance of the peasantry. They kept alive the institution of household-based production.,Meanwhile, the state placed dual demands on women's creative forces: they were to reachparity with men in the labour force while, at the same time, they were also to nurture thecoming generations. The economy's demands for more workers mobilised the female labourreserves, but women's integration presupposed a reduction of women's reproductive responsibilities. However, rather than balancing out the burdens between men and women, reproductive rights were constructed as women's rights. Consequently, women were integrated as a 'deviant' labour force. The evolving gender segregation of labour in the collective and household sphere was explained by the changing constructions of 'masculinities' and 'femininities'. The evolving economic differentiation served as the basis for the materialisation of gender relations yet could not by itself determine the gender specific outcome of the changes in economic cycles.

This thesis attempts to extend the historical scope of divorce research in Sweden by providing an analysis ofhow the variations in the divorce rate over time and across geographical areas are connected to the economic, normative and institutional restructuring of Swedish society during the period 1915-1974. The thesis finds that the economic reshaping of Sweden into a modern market economy is at the center of the process that has resulted in decreased marital stability during the twentieth century. The shift from a single- to a dual-provider model and an increased integration of both men and women into market processes outside the family have resulted in lowered economic interdependence between spouses, which in turn has decreased the economic constraints to divorce. This conclusion is supported by the empirical finding that indicators of female economic self-sufficiency are associated with increased propensities for divorce, during the entire period under research in this thesis. That changes in the constraints experienced by women have been important is further emphasized by the finding that women have been more prone than men to initiate divorce, and that this gendered pattern of divorce was established already during the early twentieth century in Sweden.The results further indicate that the growth of divorce is connected not only to a shift in the provider model but also to the way sustained economic growth has resulted in a general increase in the resources available to individuals, as proposed by the socio-economic growth hypothesis. During the 1920s and 1930s, high-strata groups, such as lawyers, journalists, engineers and military officers, exhibited a divorce rate on the same level as in the general population of Sweden today. By the early 1960s, however, this positive associa- tion between social class and divorce had changed: by then it was rather couples in working-class occupations who exhibited the highest probability of divorce, which is a pattern that appears to have persisted since then. These findings indicate that a general increase and more even distribution of economic resources betweenboth genders and social classes have facilitated individuals’ possibilities to sustain themselves independent of family ties. This democratization in the access to divorce has meant that growing segments of the populationhave gained the means to act on a demand for divorce.However, another result of the thesis is that it is not possible to limit the analysis to a strictly economic perspective. Rather, economic changes have interacted with and been reinforced by changes in values, as wellas in institutions, during the periods when widespread and rapid behavioral change has occurred. In Sweden, like in most other Western countries, this was primarily the case during the 1940s and a period covering approximately the second half of the 1960s and first half of the 1970s. The studies of the thesis suggest that these two periods of rapid growth in the divorce rate stand out as periods in Swedish history when attitudes also changed more rapidly toward values that can be regarded as permissive, secular and more open to indi- vidual freedom of choice. Trenchantly, these two periods also correspond to the two harvest periods in Social Democratic welfare state policy. In the thesis it is argued that the marked increase in government services and social security at these time points integrated with and reinforced economic restructuring in a way that worked to “de-familializate” individuals by making them less dependent on family ties for social security. Institutional changes of this type have been particularly important for making single life more feasible for women and low- income groups. In the thesis, it is argued that the timings of substantial behavioral change become difficult to understand if the analytical perspective does not explicitly incorporate how such contextual-level changes in values and institutions have integrated with changes in the provider model and the economy during thesedynamic periods of the divorce transition in Sweden.

<p>This dissertation is based on four years of ethnographic research of contemporary women-only social formations. Two women-only leisure activities, women’s flat track roller derby and women-only home improvement workshops, were selected as sites through which to explore the research problem: problematizing contemporary women onlyness. The research problem is developed in direct contrast to the dominant (naturalized, essentialized, assumed) approach to women onlyness in the literature. Specifically, taking a fresh look at women-only social formations by problematizing women onlyness, through exploring women’s experiences of and meaning making about women onlyness, calls critical attention to women onlyness. The analysis, informed by a conceptual framework that draws on Connell’s concept of ‘gender regime’ and a CCCS-inspired approach to cultural production, reveals the ways that women participants are active in the production of women onlyness gender regimes. Specifically, women’s flat track roller derby skaters and women-only home improvement workshop participants consistently and constantly negotiate essentialized stereotypes of gender as they “win space” for themselves in traditionally male-dominated and masculine defined activities and settings, and make meaning of their involvement in these women-only leisure activities. Women participants produce women onlyness gender regimes in the ways they make time and space for and gender mark these activities, and in social interactions with each other, men, and other women. They work to produce women onlyness gender regimes that are experienced as welcoming, supportive, and comfortable, and encourage women to develop expertise and relationships with other participants. Emphasizing these processes of production reveals that these women onlyness gender regimes are not the natural result of a women-only group or the exclusion of men. These findings contradict the tendency in the existing literature to naturalize women onlyness, and contribute to our understanding of contemporary women-only social formations.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Det övergripande syftet med denna avhandling är att synliggöra formella och informella maktstrukturer i Norrköpings kommuns politiska ledning mellan åren 1970 och 2006 ur ett genusperspektiv. I inledningen ställs frågan om det är så att kvinnors inlemmande i kommunalpolitiken endast har lett till en jämn könsrepresentation i den politiska toppen, men inte medfört verklig politiskt makt. Utifrån ett samtidshistoriskt perspektiv undersöks den underliggande maktstruktur om den politiska makten i Norrköping kan sägas ha vilat på vid olika tidpunkter mellan 1970 och 2006. Den teoretiska ansatsen är inspirerad av ett feministiskt genusperspektiv och det empiriska materialet analyseras med hjälp av bl a begreppet genusregim. Detta begrepp utgör grunden i avhandlingens teoretiska ram. I den konkreta analysen används sedan begrepp som politisk fält och politiskt kapital, manlighet, manlig homosocialitet, hegemoni och diskursiv makt. Utgångspunkten i avhandlingen är att kvinnor och mäns olika tillgång till informell makt i politiken dels har att göra med makt som baseras på genus, dels har att göra med makt kopplat till relationerna mellan ledande politiker och ledande tjänstemän i kommunens administrativa ledning. Avhandlingen undersöker på vilket sätt kvinnliga och manliga politikers formella deltagande i kommunens nämnder, kommunstyrelsen och andra organ förändrades under perioden 1970–2006. Den belyser också hur politiker och tjänstemän har uppfattat den underliggande maktstruktur som underbygger verklig politisk makt, samt hur denna maktstruktur har förhållit sig till genus. Avhandlingen undersöker även huruvida manliga tjänstemän begränsat kvinnliga politikers maktutrymme. Avhandlingen visar att den makt som underbygger den politiska styrningen har vilat på två slags ordningsrelationer: den mellan kvinnor och män respektive den mellan den politiska ledningen och administrationen. Avhandlingen visar således att problemet med kvinnors brist på informell makt har varit inbyggt i det politiska systemet. / The aim of this dissertation is to examine women’s and men’s access to quantitative and qualitative political power in the municipality of Norrköping between 1970 and 2006. The method chosen is to analyze the substructure underlying political leaders’ ability to govern. The premise of this inquiry is that an unequal distribution of genuine power between women and men in politics depends on gender-based power structures as well as the relationship between politicians in leadership positions and male employees in leading positions in the municipal administration. There are three main questions of interest in this dissertation. Firstly, in what respects does the formal representation of women and man elected as representatives in the municipal council, the municipal executive board, and other boards change in the period 1970―2006? Secondly, how do politicians and employed municipal administrators describe the structures of power that grant genuine power, and how do informal power relations relate to the gender-based power structure? Thirdly, focusing on women’s increasing participation in governing processes I ask in what respects the male dominance in the administration circumscribes the possibilities of female politicians in leadership positions to exercise genuine power. With these questions as the starting point, I have studied political power structures in relation to women and men as well as in relation to actors in political and administrative leadership positions in the municipality of Norrköping. Relaying on the concept of gender regime I have developed an analytical framework to analyze the informal power structures. The concept of gender regime can be understood as the patterning of gender processes in particular social units at a particular historical time. In the theoretical approach of the dissertation, the concept of gender regime in combination with the concepts of manliness, male homosociality and the hegemony of men, offer a complex way of analyzing gender and power relations at a local level. One of the main conclusions is that despite a changing political gender regime in the 21st century, the power was still based on a patriarchal model.

Sammanfattning Syfte och frågeställningar Syftet med studien har varit att ur ett genusperspektiv undersöka synen på bedömningsgrunder i betygssättningen inom ämnet idrott och hälsa i relation till svenska, samhällskunskap och matematik bland flickor och pojkar på Natur- och samhällsprogrammet(NS). Detta har undersökts utifrån följande frågeställningar: • På vilket sätt upplever gymnasieelever på NS-programmet att de bedöms i idrott och hälsa i relation till de ämnen som syftet anger? • Vilka förutsättningar upplever eleverna finns för att nå de olika betygsstegen i skolämnena idrott och hälsa, samhällskunskap, matematik och svenska? • Hur tror eleverna att en jämställd betygsbedömning ser ut i de utvalda skolämnena? Utifrån detta kommer vi att diskutera hur eleverna bryter eller återskapar genusordningen i sina resonemang kring betygsbedömningen. Metod Den metod som använts i studien är av kvalitativ karaktär som i det här fallet varit fyra fokusgruppsintervjuer i en årskurs tvåa på NS-programmet. Vi använde oss av ett strategiskt urval för den utvalda målgruppen. För att förstå och tolka elevernas resonemang i vårt resultat har vi använt oss av Yvonne Hirdmans och Raewyn Connells genusteorier. Resultat I relationen mellan idrott och hälsa, matematik, svenska och samhällskunskap finns, enligt vårt resultat, en indikation på att kunskaperna laddas och värderas på olika sätt och får därmed olika dignitet. Idrott och hälsa som det lägsta i hierarkin och matematik som det högsta, däremellan befinner sig samhällskunskap och svenska. En del av bedömningen, enligt eleverna, är intresse och deras beteende och inställning under lektionerna. Beteenden, egenskaper och intressen genusifieras av eleverna. Intresset för idrott och hälsa tillskrivs pojkarna vilket i sin tur leder till att båda könen tillåter pojkarna att dominera idrottsundervisningen. Slutsats Eleverna i vår studie förhandlar sällan, eller aldrig om sina genusidentiter framförallt inte inom intresseområden. Detta menar vi begränsar både flickorna och pojkarna. Alla aktörer i skolan medverkar till att skapa och upprätthålla genussystemet, att diskutera betyg och bedömning är ett sätt att konkretisera detta. Då idrott och hälsa, enligt eleverna, saknar tydliga mål genererar det också att ett högt betyg i idrott och hälsa inte får samma legitimitet som de övriga ämnena vi undersökt. Resonemanget att det är lätt att uppnå ett betyg i idrott och hälsa i jämförelse med matematik, svenska och samhällskunskap medför en förstärkning av detta. Däremot verkar det, enligt vårt resultat och tidigare forskning, som att höga betyg i idrott och hälsa verkar statushöjande för framförallt pojkar. Nyckelord Genus, idrott och hälsa, samhällskunskap, svenska, matematik, genusidentitet, genuskontrakt, ideal, maskulinitet, feminitet, genusregim, betyg, bedömning. / Abstract Aim The aim of this study has been to examine the perception of assessment criteria in the grading of Physical education in relation to Swedish, Social studies and Mathematics among girls and boys in Nature and Society programme (NS) from a gender perspective. This has been examined through using the following questions: • How do high school students at the NS programme experience the assessment in Physical education in relation to other subjects in school? • Which specific terms do the students experience they have to achieve in the various grades in Physical education, Social studies, Mathematics and Swedish? • How do the students perceive that an equal assessment is made in the chosen subjects? From this, we will interpret how students challenge or reproduce the gender order in their discussion of assessment. Method This study has had an qualitative approach and four focus group interviews have been carriedout with second year students at the NS programme. We used a strategic selection for the selected target group. To understand and interpret students' reasoning in our results, we have used the gender theory of Yvonne Hirdman and Raewyn Connell. Results The main result obtained in our study indicates that the students value the relations betweenthe chosen subjects differentially. Physical education as the lowest in the hierarchy and Mathematics as the highest. In between are Social studies, and Swedish. With this setting it is also difficult for the students to define what they should learn in Physical education. This is not seen as a problem in Mathematics. Part of the assessment, according to students, is based on their level of interest and behavior. Behaviors, characteristics and interests of the students are gendered which also becomes a part of the assessment. Interest in Physical education is attributed to the boys, which leads to both sexes allowing them to dominate Physical education. Conclusion The students in this study rarely negotiate their gender identities, especially in areas of interest. This, according to us, limits both girls and boys. All actors at the school in this study helps to create and maintain the gender system. Discussing the grading and assessment are ways of concretizing it. According to the students is there a lack of aim in Physical educationin contrast to Social studies, Mathematics and Swedish. The consequence of these arguments is according to us that the legitimacy of Physical education is minor then the other subjects in our study. However due to our result and previous science do high grades in Physical education bring higher status above all to the boys. Keywords Gender, Physical education, Social studies, Swedish, Mathematics, gender identity, gender contract, ideals, masculinity, femininity, gender regime, grading. assessment.

La thèse présente l’étude de deux cas nationaux, la Russie et la France, dont les contextes et les genèses des situations présentes sont spécifiques. On suppose que malgré un héritage historique et des institutions politiques différents, les ordres de genre en Russie et en France passent par des étapes semblables. De telles ressemblances sont conditionnées par le fait que la politique publique maintient un ordre de genre inégal et ceci trouve son application dans les structures politiques elle-mêmes, qui représentent une forme pyramidale. Le modèle de l’ordre de genre, propose un cadre théorique heuristique non seulement pour analyser les relations de genre dans les sociétés contemporaines et dans les institutions, mais aussi dans le cadre historique. La thèse a pour objectif d'explorer les différentes facettes de la construction des rapports de genre comme rapports politiques en fournissant à la fois des outils théoriques, une perspective historique, et des études de cas contemporains. La démarche comparative permet de porter un regard décentré sur la réalité propre nationale des rapports de genre, et de questionner des éléments qui peuvent paraître évidents d’un point de vue strictement interne. / This thesis discusses the gender order of two national cases studies – Russia and France. The current situations with regards to gender order are specific to each country and have evolved from differing contexts. However, this thesis proposes that the development of gender order has passed through similar stages, both in Russia and France, despite different historical backgrounds and political systems. In addition, it is proposed that resemblances in the development of gender order are primarily affected by public policy in both countries which supports an order of gender equality. This politically-influenced gender inequality is reflected by the political structure which forms a pyramid structure. The gender order model provides a heuristic theoretical framework in which to analyse gender-relations in the contemporary societies and institutions of each country; along with the opportunity to examine gender-relations from an historical perspective. The aim of this research is to investigate the different facets of the development of gender-relations within a political context in Russia and France. The research methodology incorporates a consideration of the theoretical background to gender-relations, the impact of each country’s development on gender order from an historical viewpoint, and reviews of contemporary case studies. Importantly, a comparative study of this kind allows the idea of national identity to be appraised from an objective viewpoint.