The cellulosome is a multimeric enzyme complex that has the ability to metabolise a wide variety of carbonaceous compounds. Cellulosomal composition may vary according to the microbe’s nutritional requirement and allows for the anaerobic degradation of complex substrates. The complex substrates of interest in this research study were sugarcane bagasse and pineapple fibre waste, as they represent two important lignocellulosic, South African agricultural crops. The effective degradation of complex plant biomass wastes may present a valuable source of renewable compounds for the production of a variety of biofuels, for example bioethanol, and a variety of biocomposites of industrial importance. The identification of renewable energy sources for the production of biofuels is becoming increasingly important, as a result of the rapid depletion of the fossil fuels that are traditionally used as energy sources. An effective means of completely degrading lignocellulose biomass still remains elusive due to the complex heterogeneity of the substrate structure, and the fact that the effective degradation of the substrate requires a consortium of enzymes. The cellulosome not only provides a variety of enzymes with varying specificities, but also promote a close proximity between the catalytic components (enzymes). The close proximity between the enzymes promotes the synergistic degradation of complex plant biomass for the production of valuable energy products. Previous synergy studies have focused predominantly on the synergistic associations between cellulases; however, the synergy between hemicellulases has occasionally been documented. This research project established the synergistic associations between two Clostridium cellulovorans hemicellulases that may be incorporated into the cellulosome and a cellulosomal endoglucanase that is conserved in all cellulosomes. This research study indicated that there was indeed a synergistic degradation of the complex plant biomass (sugarcane bagasse and pineapple fibre). The degrees of synergy and the ratio of the enzymes varied between the two complex substrates. The initial degradation of the bagasse required the presence of all the enzymes and proceeded at an enhanced rate under sulphidogenic conditions; however, there was a low production of fermentable sugars. The low quantity of fermentable sugars produced by the degradation of the bagasse may be related to the chemical composition of the substrate. The sugarcane contains a high percentage of lignin forming a protective layer around the holocellulose, thus the glycosidic bonds are shielded extensively from enzymatic attack. In comparison, the initial degradation of the pineapple fibre required the action of hemicellulases, and proceeded at an enhanced rate under sulphidogenic conditions. The initial degradation of the pineapple fibre produced a substantially larger quantity of fermentable sugars in comparison to the bagasse. The higher production of fermentable sugars from the degradation of the pineapple fibre may be explained by the fact that this substrate may have a lower percentage of lignin than the bagasse, thus allowing a larger percentage of the glycosidic bonds to be exposed to enzymatic attack. The data obtained also indicated that the glycosidic bonds from the hemicellulosic components of the pineapple fibre shielded the glycosidic bonds of the cellulose component. The identification of the chemical components of the different substrates may allow for the initial development of an ideal enzyme complex (designer cellulosome) with enzymes in an ideal ratio with optimal synergy that will effectively degrade the complex plant biomass substrate.

The effect of HZSM-5 catalyst and NaOH pretreatment on the product distribution and bio oil properties from pyrolysis of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin model compounds was investigated at 450 °C. NaOH pretreated and untreated cellulose was pyrolyzed on sand and the HZSM-5 catalysts; VPISU001 HZSM-5, BASF HZSM-5, and Sud-Chemie HZSM-5. The pyrolysis of cellulose on BASF and Sud-Chemie HZSM-5 catalysts increased the yields of the organic liquid fraction, total liquid and char while decreasing the gas yields. However the catalyst decreased the organic and char yields while increasing the water yields but there was no change in gas yields. The NaOH treatment caused a decrease in the organic and total oil yields relative to the control but the char yield increased. The change in gas yields was not significant. The characterization of the oils using FTIR and ¹³C−nmr showed that, the VPISU001 HZSM-5 with and without NaOH pretreatment caused elimination of the levoglucosan fraction while increasing the aromatic fraction. The NaOH pretreated cellulose pyrolyzed on sand reduced the levoglucosan groups while increasing the aromatic fraction of the bio oil. In the hemicellulose studies, birchwood xylan and NaOH treated xylan samples were pyrolyzed on sand and VPISU001 HZSM-5 catalyst. The organic liquid yields were very low and ranged from 3.3 wt% to 7.2 wt%, the water yields ranged from 17.8-25.7 wt%, the char yield were 17.8-25 wt% and gas yield were 40.9-49.6 wt%. The HZSM-5 catalysts increased the water and gas yields and produced the lowest char yield. NaOH pretreatment produced the lowest water yield while the char yield was the highest. The combined effect of NaOH pretreatment and HZSM-5 produced the lowest organic yield and highest char yield. The FTIR and ¹³C-nmr analyses of the organic liquids showed that the HZSM-5 catalyst promoted the formation of aromatic products, while the NaOH pretreatment promoted the formation of aliphatic hydrocarbons. The combined effect of NaOH pretreatment and HZSM-5 catalyst seem to promote the formation of anhydrosugars. The main gases evolved were CO, CO₂ and low molecular weight hydrocarbons. The HZSM-5 catalyst promoted CO formation while NaOH pretreatment promoted CO₂. The HZSM-5 catalyst produced the highest yield of low molecular weight hydrocarbon gases. The lignin and model compounds studies involved using low molecular weight kraft lignin, guaiacol, and syringol which were pyrolyzed on sand and VPISU001 HZSM-5 catalyst at 450 °C. The kraft lignin pyrolysis produced low liquid and gas yields and high char yields. The HZSM-5 catalysts increased the water yield and decreased the organic liquid yield. NaOH pretreatment increased the char yield and decreased the liquid products. NaOH and the HZSM-5 catalyst together decreased the char and increased the gas yields. The ¹³C-nmr and FTIR analysis showed that NaOH pretreatment promoted the formation of mainly guaiacol while the HZSM-5 catalyst formed different aromatic components. NaOH pretreatment promoted the formation of more CO₂ than CO whilst HZSM-5 catalyst promoted the formation of more CO than CO₂. Methane formation was enhanced by NaOH pretreatment. Other hydrocarbon gases were however enhanced by the HZSM-5 catalysts. Pyrolysis of the model compounds on the HSZM-5 catalyst showed an increase in pyrolytic water. The HZSM-5 catalyst promoted demethylation in syringol pyrolysis as compared to guaiacol. / Master of Science

Les cocktails enzymatiques tels que Rovabio® sont utilisés en nutrition animale comme complément alimentaire pour aider les animaux à mieux assimiler les fibres présentes dans leur ration alimentaire composée principalement de blé en Europe. Le mécanisme de déconstruction enzymatique du son de blé, partie du grain majoritairement composée de fibres, considérées comme difficilement hydrolysables et donc assimilables reste encore incompris, c’est pourquoi ces travaux de thèse s’appuient sur l’utilisation d’un bioréacteur instrumenté combinant des analyses physiques in-situ et biochimiques ex-situ afin d’avoir un point de vue global de ce phénomène. Cette approche multi-échelle est originale car rarement considérée en nutrition animale où les études in-vivo sont privilégiées. Cos travaux ont ainsi permis de mettre en évidence que l’action de Rovabio® se caractérise par une première phase de fragmentation notamment des grosses particules concomitante avec une forte solubilisation. La déconstruction du son de blé se poursuit ensuite par une fragmentation mais cette fois sans aucune solubilisation de polysaccharides. L’ajout d’une xylanase seule, en tant qu’enzyme la plus active du cocktail, solubilise la même quantité d’arabinoxylane mais ne permet pas une fragmentation importante des particules, contrairement au Rovabio®. Ces résultats confirment donc l’importance de la richesse et de la diversité d’un cocktail enzymatique pour déconstruire efficacement des structures aussi complexe que le son de blé. Cependant, en dépit de cela, seulement 37%w/w de matière sèche est solubilisée, même en excès de Rovabio®. Cette incapacité du cocktail enzymatique à dégrader complètement ces fibres semblerait provenir d’une inaccessibilité des enzymes à leur substrat. Nous avons ainsi montré que le rendement d’hydrolyse enzymatique est amélioré en augmentant la surface spécifique des particules (traitement mécanique) et/ ou en désorganisant l’architecture de la structure des fibres par l’ajout d’un complexe enzymatique particulièrement riche en pectinases. Néanmoins, si ces deux voies améliorent les performances du cocktail, elles ne permettent toujours pas une hydrolyse totale du son de blé. Finalement ce travail souligne l’intérêt d’enzymes ou de protéines actives capables d’attaquer les structures minoritaires du réseau lignocellulosique assurant sa résistance et sa cohésion, ce qui permet ainsi aux enzymes d’avoir un meilleur accès à leurs substrats. / Enzyme cocktails, such as Rovabio®, which is rich of hydrolytic enzymes are used as feed additives to favor degradation of non-starch polysaccharides present in wheat, a major feed in poultry industry. The deconstruction mechanism of wheat bran, part of the seed mainly composed of fiber, is still fairly unclear. This PhD aims to highlight these mechanisms using a multi-instrumented bioreactor that allowed to combine in-situ physical and ex-situ biochemical analyses. This multiscale approach stands as an alternative and original approach which is rarely considered in animal nutrition. This work highlights that Rovabio® action occurred in two concurrent process, namely fragmentation and solubilization phenomena which take place within the first 2 h after addition of the enzyme cocktail. It is then followed by a particle fragmentation which was not accompanied by any sugars solubilization. Thus, in spite of the abundant and very active hydrolytic enzyme activities in Rovabio®, the deconstruction of destarched wheat bran was however limited to 37% of w/w. At variance to Rovabio®, xylanase added alone was capable of solubilization activity (same final release of xylose and arabinose) but the fragmentation was much weaker by only disorganizing the fibrous network and hence led to particle disaggregation. Altogether, these results confirmed the importance of the enzyme mixtures which act in a synergistic manner to readily solubilize wheat bran. Our results also indicated that the limitation of Rovabio® action upon wheat bran degradation may come from physical inaccessibility of the substrate as it could be partially overcome by enhancing the substrate specific surface by a mechanical treatment and/or due to some missing or limiting enzyme activity as shown by a slight increase in solubilization following addition of some pectinases cocktails that are poorly represented in Rovabio®. Nevertheless, these complementary actions were still insufficient for complete hydrolysis of wheat bran. To conclude, this work draws attention to plant cell wall-deconstructing enzymes or active proteins which are able to attack the biomass minor structures and disorganize its network in order to increase substrate accessibility to enzymes that cleave backbone structures.

Hemicelulose extraída do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar foi hidrolisada por enzimas de Thermoascus aurantiacus, Trichoderma reesei e Aspergilus niger para obtenção de xilo-oligossacarídeos (XOs). A hemicelulose foi extraída com hidróxido de sódio na presença de antraquinona, sulfito de sódio ou peróxido de hidrogênio. O uso de antraquinona ou sulfito aumentou o rendimento de extração, porém a hemicelulose apresentou baixa solubilidade em água, propriedade inadequada para a hidrólise enzimática. A extração da hemicellulose com peróxido de hidrogênio em meio alcalino foi otimizada através de um planejamento fatorial completo 24 variando-se a concentração de H2O2 de 2 a 6% (m/v), tempo de reação de 4 a 16 h, temperatura de 20 a 60°C e presença ou não de 0,5% de sulfato de magnésio. No ponto central o rendimento de extração de hemicelulose foi de 94,5% com remoção de mais que 88% da lignina. Um rendimento de 86% de hemicelulose com baixo teor de lignina (5,9%) foi obtido em 6% de peróxido de hidrogênio por 4h a 20°C. Nessa condição a hemicelulose apresentou massa molar de 21.000 g/mol, composição aproximada de 81% xilose, 4% de arabinose, 4% de glicose e 3% de ácidos urônicos, alta solubilidade em água (90 % em massa) e coloração amarelo claro. As enzimas usadas na hidrólise dessa hemicelulose foram produzidas pelo cultivo dos fungos em meio sólido contento farelo de trigo. Em todos os extratos foi observada baixa atividade de endoglucanase e β-xilosidase e elevadas atividades de endo-β-1,4-xilanase. A máxima atividade de xilanase foi produzida por T. aurantiacus (1500 U/g), enquanto A. niger produziu 500 U/g e T. reesei 240 U/g, em 5 dias de cultivo. O perfil de produção de XOs com enzimas de T. aurantiacus e T. reesei foi semelhante, o principal produto foi xilobiose, seguido por xilose, xilotriose, xilotetraose e xilopentaose, sendo esses XOs de cadeia linear. A hidrólise da hemicelulose com enzimas de A. niger produziu exclusivamente xilose, consequência da presença de elevada atividade de β-xilosidase. A velocidade de conversão da hemicelulose em XOs com as enzimas de T. reesei foi maior no início da reação (6 h), diminuindo a partir de 24 h, período em que inicia a produção de xilose. A influência da concentração de substrato e carga de xilanase na conversão da hemicelulose em XOs foi avaliada através de um planejamento experimental 22 com face centrada. A condição otimizada da hidrólise (2,6% substrato e 60 U/g de endo-β-1,4-xilanase) com o extrato de T. aurantiacus resultou em 42% de conversão em XOs. A otimização da hidrólise da hemicelulose com o extrato de T. reesei resultou em uma conversão máxima de 20%, com ótimo de 3,8 % de substrato e 87,5 U/g de endo-β-1,4-xilanase. A eficiência da hidrólise com enzimas de T. aurantiacus foi maior que a obtida com alguns extratos comerciais testados neste trabalho. Além disso, apresentaram capacidade de degradar hemiceluloses de diferentes fontes: bétula e semente de aveia, com composições variadas. Diferenças na composição de açúcares e teor de lignina não interferiram na ação dessas enzimas. A hidrólise enzimática mostrou-se mais apropriada para a produção de XOs do que a auto-hidrólise, que gerou predominantemente xilose e houve formação de furfural. Apesar do curto tempo de reação, a produção de XOs foi menor e há necessidade de purificação para obtenção de um produto final com características desejáveis. / Hemicellulose extracted from sugarcane bagasse was hydrolyzed by enzymes from Thermoascus aurantiacus, Trichoderma reesei and Aspergilus niger to cause the degradation of xylan to xylooligosaccharides (XOs). Hemicellulose was extracted with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of antraquinone, sodium sulphite or hydrogen peroxide. Hemicelluloses extracted with antraquinone or sulphite presented low solubility in water, which is not appropriated to enzymatic hydrolysis. To maximize the hemicellulose yields several extraction conditions were examined applying the 24 factorial design: H2O2 concentration from 2 to 6% (w/v), reaction time from 4 to 16 h, temperature from 20 to 60°C, and magnesium sulfate absence or presence (0.5%, w/v). This approach allowed selection of conditions for the extraction of low and high lignin content hemicellulose. At midpoint the yield of hemicellulose was 94.5% with more than 88% of lignin removed. Hemicellulose in 86% yield with low lignin content (5.9%) was obtained with 6% H2O2 treatment for 4 h and 20°C. This hemicellulose is much lighter in color than samples obtained at the midpoint condition and was found suitable for subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis. The molecular weight of hemicellulose was 21,000 g/mol with composition of aproximately 81% xylose, 4% arabinose, 4% glucose and 3% uronic acids, high water solubility (90 %). Enzymes for hemicellulose hydrolysis were produced by the fungi on wheat bran. Cellulases and hemicellulases were present in all extracts especially the endo-β-1,4-xylanase. The profile of production of XOs obtained on hydrolysis with enzymes from T. aurantiacus and T. reesei was similar, with the main product xylobiose, followed by xylose, xylotriose, xylotetraose and xylopentaose, and these XOs showed linear chain. The hydrolysis of hemicellulose with enzymes of A. niger produced exclusively xylose, a consequence of β-xylosidase content. The rate of conversion of hemicellulose in XOs with enzymes of T. reesei was higher at the beginning of the reaction (6 h), decreasing from 24 h, when starts the production of xylose. The influence of substrate concentration and loading of xylanase in conversion of hemicellulose to XOs was evaluated by an 22 full factorial design with centered face. Optimization of hydrolysis (2.6% substrate and 60 U/g endo-β-1,4-xylanase) with the extract of T. aurantiacus resulted in 42 % conversion XOs. The optimization with the extract of T. reesei resulted in a conversion of hemicellulose up to 20%, with optimal substrate 3.8% and 87.5 U/g endo-β-1,4-xylanase. The efficiency of hydrolysis by enzymes from T. aurantiacus was superior to commercial extracts, and showed ability to degrade hemicelluloses of different compositions (birchwood and oat spelt). The structural differences, such as branches and lignin content did not affect the action of these enzymes. The differences in the efficiency and extent of enzymatic hydrolysis by enzymes of these fungi might have occurred in function of differences in physicochemical properties and specific activity. The enzymatic hydrolysis was more appropriate for production of XOs than autohydrolysis, which generated predominantly xylose and formation of furfural. Despite of short reaction time, the production of XOs was low and purification is needed in order to obtain a final product with desirable characteristics.

Atualmente é grande o interesse pelo aproveitamento da biomassa vegetal visando à obtenção de bioetanol de segunda geração. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a produção de etanol de segunda geração a partir de hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar pelas leveduras Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL Y-7124 e Candida shehatae UFMG HM 52.2 visando à aplicação em bioprocessos com campo eletromagnético. Salienta-se ainda que a importância do presente trabalho se dá, não apenas pelo caráter inovador desta pesquisa, mas também pelo fato do bioeletromagnetismo e particularmente biorreatores assistidos por campos eletromagnéticos constituírem uma recente e promissora área de pesquisa na biotecnologia onde é possível estudar alternativas que resultem no aumento do rendimento e/ou da produtividade do processo de fermentação. Numa primeira etapa, foram realizados experimentos em bateladas simples em meio contendo hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar previamente destoxificado e suplementado com extrato de levedura para a avaliação da influência das variáveis pHinicial, agitação e vazão de ar no fator de conversão de açúcares em etanol para cada uma das leveduras, de acordo com um planejamento fatorial completo 23 com três repetições no ponto central. As melhores condições operacionais obtidas para a levedura S. stipitis NRRL Y-7124 foram 100 rpm, 0,7 vvm e pHinicial de 6,50 com um kLainicial de 3 h-1 as quais exerceram uma influência positiva sobre o processo fermentativo, obtendo-se valores de YP/S de 0,16 g/g e QP de 0,10 g L-1 h-1. Para a levedura C. shehatae UFMG HM 52.2 as condições foram 100 rpm, 0,1 vvm e pHinicial de 6,50 com um kLainicial de 0,2 h-1 obtendo-se valores de YP/S de 0,44 g/g e QP de 0,25 g L-1 h-1. Segundo os resultados obtidos, observou-se que a levedura C. shehatae apresentou maiores valores de fator de rendimento e produtividade em etanol quando comparados à levedura S. stipitis. Posteriormente, foi avaliada a influência da configuração do campo eletromagnético no processo de fermentação de hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar empregando a levedura C. shehatae imobilizada em polímero com propriedades magnéticas. Os resultados da influência das configurações do campo eletromagnético (axial e transveral) foram positivos observando-se aumento de 47 % na produção de etanol (configuração axial) em relação ao experimento controle (sem campo). Este estudo demonstrou que a levedura C. shehatae UFMG HM 52.2 apresentou-se com melhor performance fermentativa no hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar quando comparada à levedura S. stipitis e que os campos eletromagnéticos são uma tecnologia promissora no processo de obtenção de bietanol. / Currently the use of biomass is of huge interest into the second generation bioethanol process. Into this field, fermentation is a key process with numerous opportunities for innovation. Electromagnetic fields bioreactors stand for a new and promising research area for the yield and/or productivity improvement of fermentation process. This study focused on the utilization of hemicellulose hydrolysate from sugarcane bagasse for ethanol production by Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL Y-7124 and Candida shehatae UFMG HM 52.2 strains intended to be applied in the electromagnetic-based bioprocesses. A 23 full factorial Central Composite Design (CCD), including three replications at the center point was applied to evaluate the effect of initial pH, agitation and air-flow rate on sugars to ethanol conversion for both strains. The experiments were carried out using stirred tank batch fermentor with medium supplemented with yeast extract and containing hemicellulose hydrolysate previously detoxified. S. stipitis showed the best ethanol production operating conditions obtained at 100 rpm, 0.7 vvm and initial pH 6.50 with kLainicial of 3 h-1 obtaining YP/S of 0.16 g/g and QP of 0.10 g L-1 h-1. For C. shehatae, the best conditions of 100 rpm, 0.1 vvm and pHinitial of 6.50 with kLainicial of 0.2 h-1 obtained YP/S of 0.44 g/g and QP of 0.25 g L-1 h-1. The results showed that yield and ethanol productivity for C. shehatae strain was higher comparing to S. stipitis. Subsequently, the influence of electromagnetic field configuration in the fermentation process of sugarcane bagasse hemicellulosic hydrolyzate was evaluated using immobilized C. shehatae in a polymer with magnetic properties. The application of electromagnetic field configuration (axial and transversal) favored the ethanol production, observing at increase of 47 % in ethanol production (axial configuration) compared to the control experiment (no electromagnetic field). The present study demonstrated that C. shehatae yeast shows high fermentative potential for sugarcane hemicellulose hydrolyzate when compared to S. stipitis strain, and that electromagnetic fields are a promising technology tool to be used into the bioethanol process.

Hemicelulose extraída do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar foi hidrolisada por enzimas de Thermoascus aurantiacus, Trichoderma reesei e Aspergilus niger para obtenção de xilo-oligossacarídeos (XOs). A hemicelulose foi extraída com hidróxido de sódio na presença de antraquinona, sulfito de sódio ou peróxido de hidrogênio. O uso de antraquinona ou sulfito aumentou o rendimento de extração, porém a hemicelulose apresentou baixa solubilidade em água, propriedade inadequada para a hidrólise enzimática. A extração da hemicellulose com peróxido de hidrogênio em meio alcalino foi otimizada através de um planejamento fatorial completo 24 variando-se a concentração de H2O2 de 2 a 6% (m/v), tempo de reação de 4 a 16 h, temperatura de 20 a 60°C e presença ou não de 0,5% de sulfato de magnésio. No ponto central o rendimento de extração de hemicelulose foi de 94,5% com remoção de mais que 88% da lignina. Um rendimento de 86% de hemicelulose com baixo teor de lignina (5,9%) foi obtido em 6% de peróxido de hidrogênio por 4h a 20°C. Nessa condição a hemicelulose apresentou massa molar de 21.000 g/mol, composição aproximada de 81% xilose, 4% de arabinose, 4% de glicose e 3% de ácidos urônicos, alta solubilidade em água (90 % em massa) e coloração amarelo claro. As enzimas usadas na hidrólise dessa hemicelulose foram produzidas pelo cultivo dos fungos em meio sólido contento farelo de trigo. Em todos os extratos foi observada baixa atividade de endoglucanase e β-xilosidase e elevadas atividades de endo-β-1,4-xilanase. A máxima atividade de xilanase foi produzida por T. aurantiacus (1500 U/g), enquanto A. niger produziu 500 U/g e T. reesei 240 U/g, em 5 dias de cultivo. O perfil de produção de XOs com enzimas de T. aurantiacus e T. reesei foi semelhante, o principal produto foi xilobiose, seguido por xilose, xilotriose, xilotetraose e xilopentaose, sendo esses XOs de cadeia linear. A hidrólise da hemicelulose com enzimas de A. niger produziu exclusivamente xilose, consequência da presença de elevada atividade de β-xilosidase. A velocidade de conversão da hemicelulose em XOs com as enzimas de T. reesei foi maior no início da reação (6 h), diminuindo a partir de 24 h, período em que inicia a produção de xilose. A influência da concentração de substrato e carga de xilanase na conversão da hemicelulose em XOs foi avaliada através de um planejamento experimental 22 com face centrada. A condição otimizada da hidrólise (2,6% substrato e 60 U/g de endo-β-1,4-xilanase) com o extrato de T. aurantiacus resultou em 42% de conversão em XOs. A otimização da hidrólise da hemicelulose com o extrato de T. reesei resultou em uma conversão máxima de 20%, com ótimo de 3,8 % de substrato e 87,5 U/g de endo-β-1,4-xilanase. A eficiência da hidrólise com enzimas de T. aurantiacus foi maior que a obtida com alguns extratos comerciais testados neste trabalho. Além disso, apresentaram capacidade de degradar hemiceluloses de diferentes fontes: bétula e semente de aveia, com composições variadas. Diferenças na composição de açúcares e teor de lignina não interferiram na ação dessas enzimas. A hidrólise enzimática mostrou-se mais apropriada para a produção de XOs do que a auto-hidrólise, que gerou predominantemente xilose e houve formação de furfural. Apesar do curto tempo de reação, a produção de XOs foi menor e há necessidade de purificação para obtenção de um produto final com características desejáveis. / Hemicellulose extracted from sugarcane bagasse was hydrolyzed by enzymes from Thermoascus aurantiacus, Trichoderma reesei and Aspergilus niger to cause the degradation of xylan to xylooligosaccharides (XOs). Hemicellulose was extracted with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of antraquinone, sodium sulphite or hydrogen peroxide. Hemicelluloses extracted with antraquinone or sulphite presented low solubility in water, which is not appropriated to enzymatic hydrolysis. To maximize the hemicellulose yields several extraction conditions were examined applying the 24 factorial design: H2O2 concentration from 2 to 6% (w/v), reaction time from 4 to 16 h, temperature from 20 to 60°C, and magnesium sulfate absence or presence (0.5%, w/v). This approach allowed selection of conditions for the extraction of low and high lignin content hemicellulose. At midpoint the yield of hemicellulose was 94.5% with more than 88% of lignin removed. Hemicellulose in 86% yield with low lignin content (5.9%) was obtained with 6% H2O2 treatment for 4 h and 20°C. This hemicellulose is much lighter in color than samples obtained at the midpoint condition and was found suitable for subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis. The molecular weight of hemicellulose was 21,000 g/mol with composition of aproximately 81% xylose, 4% arabinose, 4% glucose and 3% uronic acids, high water solubility (90 %). Enzymes for hemicellulose hydrolysis were produced by the fungi on wheat bran. Cellulases and hemicellulases were present in all extracts especially the endo-β-1,4-xylanase. The profile of production of XOs obtained on hydrolysis with enzymes from T. aurantiacus and T. reesei was similar, with the main product xylobiose, followed by xylose, xylotriose, xylotetraose and xylopentaose, and these XOs showed linear chain. The hydrolysis of hemicellulose with enzymes of A. niger produced exclusively xylose, a consequence of β-xylosidase content. The rate of conversion of hemicellulose in XOs with enzymes of T. reesei was higher at the beginning of the reaction (6 h), decreasing from 24 h, when starts the production of xylose. The influence of substrate concentration and loading of xylanase in conversion of hemicellulose to XOs was evaluated by an 22 full factorial design with centered face. Optimization of hydrolysis (2.6% substrate and 60 U/g endo-β-1,4-xylanase) with the extract of T. aurantiacus resulted in 42 % conversion XOs. The optimization with the extract of T. reesei resulted in a conversion of hemicellulose up to 20%, with optimal substrate 3.8% and 87.5 U/g endo-β-1,4-xylanase. The efficiency of hydrolysis by enzymes from T. aurantiacus was superior to commercial extracts, and showed ability to degrade hemicelluloses of different compositions (birchwood and oat spelt). The structural differences, such as branches and lignin content did not affect the action of these enzymes. The differences in the efficiency and extent of enzymatic hydrolysis by enzymes of these fungi might have occurred in function of differences in physicochemical properties and specific activity. The enzymatic hydrolysis was more appropriate for production of XOs than autohydrolysis, which generated predominantly xylose and formation of furfural. Despite of short reaction time, the production of XOs was low and purification is needed in order to obtain a final product with desirable characteristics.

No Brasil, vários grupos de pesquisa vêm se empenhando em desenvolver estratégias que visam ao aproveitamento da biomassa vegetal, principalmente biomassa de cana-de-açúcar, para a produção de etanol de segunda geração (2G), o que coloca o País numa posição de destaque no cenário internacional, na busca por alternativas para a produção de energia de forma sustentável e economicamente competitiva. Dentro deste contexto, este trabalho avaliou a obtenção de etanol 2G a partir de hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar pela levedura Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL Y-7124, pela determinação das melhores condições de suplementação do meio de cultivo e das condições operacionais em processo descontínuo e descontínuo alimentado. Na etapa de estabelecimento da suplementação do meio de cultivo foi empregado um planejamento experimental fracionado 29-5 com três repetições no ponto central e um planejamento de mistura. As melhores condições foram (2,0 g/L) extrato de levedura, (0,5 g/L) fosfato de potássio, (0,5 g/L) peptona, (0,5 g/L) sulfato de magnésio e (0,01 g/L) sulfato de zinco. Quanto ao estabelecimento das condições operacionais pHinicial, agitação e vazão de ar em biorreator, utilizou-se um planejamento central composto rotacional com três repetições no ponto central. As melhores condições encontradas foram pHinicial 6,0, agitação 225 rpm e aeração 0,45 vvm obtendo-se um fator de conversão em etanol (YP/S) de 0,23 g/g e produtividade (QP) de 0,18 g/L/h. Posteriormente foram realizados processos de fermentação descontínua e descontínua alimentada empregando-se as melhores condições definidas. No processo descontínuo, observou-se a produção de 9,94 g/L de etanol, correspondendo a valores de QP de 0,28 g/L/h, enquanto a utilização do processo descontínuo alimentado resultou em favorecimento de 37,3%, 75% nos valores de etanol formado (13,75 g/L), QP (0,49 g/L/h), respectivamente. Os resultados indicaram que um meio de cultivo suplementado com adição de poucos nutrientes aliado ao emprego de fermentação em modo descontínuo alimentado é uma estratégia promissora para a produção de etanol 2G a partir de hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana. / In Brazil, research groups have been striving to develop strategies aimed at the use of plant biomass, and second generation ethanol has made the country a leader in this area. Energy and sustainability solutions are key to making this technology more competitive to meet the growing demand for biofuels. In this work, the acquisition of 2G ethanol from sugarcane hemicellulose hydrolyzate in culture medium optimized by Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL Y-7124 yeast residue was evaluated. Simple batch and fed batch operational conditions were evaluated for use in bioprocesses. Experiments were performed in Erlenmeyer flasks with medium containing sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolyzate, which was detoxified using the yeast Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL Y-7124, in order to optimize the culture medium according to a fractional factorial design of 29-5, with three repetitions at the midpoint, and a mix plan. The best optimized conditions were yeast extract (2.0 g/L), potassium phosphate (0.5 g/L), peptone (0.5 g/L), magnesium sulfate (0.5 g/L) and zinc sulfate (0.01 g/L). Soon after, pHinicial variables, agitation, and air flow rate were optimized in the bioreactor using a central composite rotational design with three repetitions at the midpoint. The best conditions were found with pHinicial at 6.0, agitation at 225 rpm and aeration at 0.45 vvm, which obtained a YP/S of 0.23 g/g and a QP of 0.18 g/L/h. The performance of Scheffersomyces stipitis yeast in a discontinuous fed-batch process with optimized conditions were also evaluated. In the process, the simple batch reached a 9.94 g/L ethanol production a QP of 0.28 g/L/h. While yeast performance in the fed-batch process was resulted in improvement 37.3%, 75% ethanol formed values (13.75 g/L), and productivity (0.49 g/L/h), respectively. The results indicated that the culture medium supplemented with addition of a few nutrients together with the use of fermentation in fed-batch is a promising for the production of 2G ethanol from sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolysate.

A fim de garantir a viabilidade econômica da produção de etanol de segunda geração é necessário o desenvolvimento de tecnologias eficientes para a hidrólise enzimática dos materiais lignocelulósicos. Além disso, o elevado consumo de água pelas biorrefinarias tem despertado grande atenção para a utilização de recursos hídricos não-potáveis, como a água do mar. Assim, atualmente busca-se por enzimas tolerantes a altas concentrações salinas, bem como aos subprodutos gerados e/ou acumulados nas etapas de pré-tratamento da biomassa. Nesse contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi a purificação e caracterização cinética e bioquímica de uma ß-xilosidase produzida por uma linhagem do fungo mesófilo Colletotrichum graminicola. A enzima purificada (Bxcg) apresentou conteúdo de carboidratos totais de 54% (m/m), ponto isoelétrico de 4,2 e uma massa molecular aparente de cerca de 130 kDa, que foi reduzida para cerca de 92 kDa após deglicosilação. A enzima mostrou boa tolerância a elevadas concentrações de sal e manteve cerca de 90% da atividade controle na presença de NaCl 0,5 mol L-1 (concentração média de NaCl na água do mar). A temperatura e pH ótimos de reação foram 65 ºC e 4,5, respectivamente, tanto na ausência quanto na presença de NaCl 0,5 mol L-1. Já na presença de NaCl 2,5 mol L-1 o pH ótimo de atividade foi alterado para 5,0. Bxcg permaneceu estável numa ampla faixa pH (4,0 - 7,5) tanto na ausência quanto na presença de sal. A enzima mostrou ótima estabilidade térmica e manteve completamente estável à 50 ºC após 24 horas de incubação. A presença de elevada concentração de NaCl (2,5 mol L-1) resultou num aumento na termoestabilidade da enzima. A atividade enzimática foi tolerante aos íons Ca2+, Sr2+, Co2+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Mn 2+, Mg2+, K+ e Na+. Na ausência de sal, Bxcg hidrolisou p-nitrofenil-?-D-xilopiranosídeo (pNP-XIL) com Vmáx de 348,8 ± 11,5 U mg-1, KM de 0,52 ± 0,02 mmol L-1 e alta eficiência catalítica (kcat/KM = 1432,7 ± 47,3 L mmol-1 s-1). Em presença de sal, a afinidade aparente de Bxcg pelo substrato foi levemente menor e a hidrólise ocorreu com Vmáx menor, resultando em eficiência catalítica cerca de 1,5 de vezes menor, se comparadas as condição de ausência de sal. A enzima apresentou atividade bifuncional de ?-xilosidase/?-L-arabinofuranosidase. Bxcg hidrolisou p-nitrofenil-?-L-arabinopiranosídeo com afinidade aparente cerca de 18 vezes menor (KM = 9,6 ± 0,5 mmol L-1) que a estimada para pNP-XIL e a hidrólise do substrato ocorreu com Vmáx de 148,4 ± 4,4 U mg-1 e eficiência catalítica de 33,1 ± 1,6 L mmol-1 s-1. A enzima foi fortemente inibida por xilose com KI de 3,3 mmol L-1. Bxcg foi capaz de hidrolisar xilooligossacarídeos até xilohexaose, inclusive aqueles com ramificação de ácido 4-O-metilglucurônico. Bxcg e uma endo-xilanase purificada do mesmo microrganismo apresentaram um forte efeito sinérgico (3,1 vezes) para hidrólise de xilana beechwood. A enzima mostrou-se tolerante aos solventes butanol, glicerol, tolueno e acetona, bem como aos surfactantes Triton X-100, Tween 80 e Tween 20, enquanto que o líquido iônico acetato de 1-etil-3-metilimidazólio inibiu fortemente a atividade enzimática. De uma maneira geral, Bxcg apresenta propriedades atraentes para a aplicação em processos de sacarificação da biomassa lignocelulósica, incluindo aqueles conduzidos em elevada salinidade e/ou em presença de compostos residuais gerados ou acumulados nas etapas de pré-tratamento da biomassa / In order to ensure the economic viability of the production of second-generation ethanol, it is necessary the development of efficient technologies for the enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials. In addition, the large consumption of water by biorefineries has attracted great attention for the use of non-potable water resources, such as seawater. Therefore, enzymes tolerant to high salt concentrations and the by-products generated and/or accumulated in the biomass pretreatment steps are widely studied. In this context, the objective of this study was the purification and kinetic and biochemical characterization of a ?-xylosidase produced by a strain of the mesophilic fungus Colletotrichum graminicola. The pure enzyme (Bxcg) showed a total carbohydrate content of 54% (w/w), isoelectric point of 4.2 and an apparent molecular weight of 130 kDa, which was reduced to 92 kDa after deglucosylation. The enzyme showed good tolerance to high salt concentrations and retained aproximately 90% of the control activity in the presence of 0.5 mol L-1 NaCl (NaCl concentration in seawater). The optimum reaction temperature and pH were 65 °C and 4.5, respectively, both in the absence and presence of 0.5 mol L-1 NaCl. In the presence of 2.5 mol L-1 NaCl, the optimum pH was altered to 5.0. Bxcg retained stable over a wide pH range (4.0 - 7.5) both in the absence and presence of salt. The enzyme showed excellent thermal stability and retained completely stable at 50 °C after 24 hours of incubation. The presence of high NaCl concentration (2.5 mol L-1) resulted in an increase in the thermostability of the enzyme. The enzymatic activity was tolerant to Ca2+, Sr2+, Co2+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+. In the absence of salt, Bxcg hydrolyzed p-nitrophenyl-?-D-xylopyranoside (pNP-XIL) with Vmax of 348.8 ± 11.5 U mg-1, KM of 0.52 ± 0.02 mmol L-1 and high catalytic efficiency (kcat/KM = 1432.7 ± 47.3 L mmol-1 s-1). In the presence of salt, the apparent affinity for the substrate was slightly lower and the hydrolysis occurred with smaller Vmax, resulting in catalytic efficiency 1.5 fold lower, when compared to the salt. The enzyme showed bifunctional ?-xylosidase/?-L-arabinofuranosidase activity. Bxcg hydrolyzed p-nitrophenyl-?-L-arabinopyranoside with apparent affinity 18-fold lower (KM = 9.6 ± 0.5 mmol L-1) than that estimated for pNP-XIL and substrate hydrolysis occurred with Vmax of 148.4 ± 4.4 U mg-1 and catalytic efficiency of 33.1 ± 1.6 L mmol-1 s-1. The enzyme was strongly inhibited by xylose with KI of 3.3 mmol L-1. Bxcg was able to hydrolyze xylooligosaccharides from xylohexaose, including those with 4-O-methyl-glucuronic acid branch. Bxcg and a pure endo-xylanase from the same microorganism had a strong synergistic effect (3.1 fold) for hydrolysis of xylan beechwood. The enzyme was tolerant to the butanol, glycerol, toluene and acetone solvents, as well as the Triton X-100, Tween 80 and Tween 20 surfactants, whereas the 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ionic liquid strongly inhibited the enzymatic activity. In summary, Bxcg has attractive properties for application in saccharification processes of the lignocellulosic biomass, particularly under high salinity and/or in the presence of residues of biomass pretreatment steps

No Brasil, vários grupos de pesquisa vêm se empenhando em desenvolver estratégias que visam ao aproveitamento da biomassa vegetal, principalmente biomassa de cana-de-açúcar, para a produção de etanol de segunda geração (2G), o que coloca o País numa posição de destaque no cenário internacional, na busca por alternativas para a produção de energia de forma sustentável e economicamente competitiva. Dentro deste contexto, este trabalho avaliou a obtenção de etanol 2G a partir de hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar pela levedura Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL Y-7124, pela determinação das melhores condições de suplementação do meio de cultivo e das condições operacionais em processo descontínuo e descontínuo alimentado. Na etapa de estabelecimento da suplementação do meio de cultivo foi empregado um planejamento experimental fracionado 29-5 com três repetições no ponto central e um planejamento de mistura. As melhores condições foram (2,0 g/L) extrato de levedura, (0,5 g/L) fosfato de potássio, (0,5 g/L) peptona, (0,5 g/L) sulfato de magnésio e (0,01 g/L) sulfato de zinco. Quanto ao estabelecimento das condições operacionais pHinicial, agitação e vazão de ar em biorreator, utilizou-se um planejamento central composto rotacional com três repetições no ponto central. As melhores condições encontradas foram pHinicial 6,0, agitação 225 rpm e aeração 0,45 vvm obtendo-se um fator de conversão em etanol (YP/S) de 0,23 g/g e produtividade (QP) de 0,18 g/L/h. Posteriormente foram realizados processos de fermentação descontínua e descontínua alimentada empregando-se as melhores condições definidas. No processo descontínuo, observou-se a produção de 9,94 g/L de etanol, correspondendo a valores de QP de 0,28 g/L/h, enquanto a utilização do processo descontínuo alimentado resultou em favorecimento de 37,3%, 75% nos valores de etanol formado (13,75 g/L), QP (0,49 g/L/h), respectivamente. Os resultados indicaram que um meio de cultivo suplementado com adição de poucos nutrientes aliado ao emprego de fermentação em modo descontínuo alimentado é uma estratégia promissora para a produção de etanol 2G a partir de hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana. / In Brazil, research groups have been striving to develop strategies aimed at the use of plant biomass, and second generation ethanol has made the country a leader in this area. Energy and sustainability solutions are key to making this technology more competitive to meet the growing demand for biofuels. In this work, the acquisition of 2G ethanol from sugarcane hemicellulose hydrolyzate in culture medium optimized by Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL Y-7124 yeast residue was evaluated. Simple batch and fed batch operational conditions were evaluated for use in bioprocesses. Experiments were performed in Erlenmeyer flasks with medium containing sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolyzate, which was detoxified using the yeast Scheffersomyces stipitis NRRL Y-7124, in order to optimize the culture medium according to a fractional factorial design of 29-5, with three repetitions at the midpoint, and a mix plan. The best optimized conditions were yeast extract (2.0 g/L), potassium phosphate (0.5 g/L), peptone (0.5 g/L), magnesium sulfate (0.5 g/L) and zinc sulfate (0.01 g/L). Soon after, pHinicial variables, agitation, and air flow rate were optimized in the bioreactor using a central composite rotational design with three repetitions at the midpoint. The best conditions were found with pHinicial at 6.0, agitation at 225 rpm and aeration at 0.45 vvm, which obtained a YP/S of 0.23 g/g and a QP of 0.18 g/L/h. The performance of Scheffersomyces stipitis yeast in a discontinuous fed-batch process with optimized conditions were also evaluated. In the process, the simple batch reached a 9.94 g/L ethanol production a QP of 0.28 g/L/h. While yeast performance in the fed-batch process was resulted in improvement 37.3%, 75% ethanol formed values (13.75 g/L), and productivity (0.49 g/L/h), respectively. The results indicated that the culture medium supplemented with addition of a few nutrients together with the use of fermentation in fed-batch is a promising for the production of 2G ethanol from sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolysate.

No description available.