Universidade Federal de Uberlândia / CHAPTER II: Infection in insects stimulates a complex defensive response. Recognition of pathogens may be accomplished by plasma or hemocyte proteins that bind specifically to bacterial or fungal polysaccharides. Several morphologically distinct hemocyte cell types cooperate in the immune response. Hemocytes attach to invading organisms and then isolate them by phagocytosis, by trapping them in hemocyte aggregates called nodules, or by forming an organized multicellular capsule around large parasites. In the current investigation the cellular population in the hemolymph third instar larvae of M. scutellaris has been characterized by means of light microscopy analysis and phagocytosis assays were performed in vivo by injection of 0,5μm fluorescence beads in order to identify the hemocyte types involved in phagocytosis. Four morphotypes of circulating hemocytes were found in 3rd instar larvae: prohemocytes, plasmatocytes, granulocytes and oenocytoids. The results presented plasmatocytes and granulocytes involved in phagocytic response of foreign particles in 3rd instar larvae of M. scutellaris. CHAPTER III: Insects are continuously exposed to potentially pathogenic microorganisms and eukaryotic parasites, but only a few encounters result in infection. Insects possess a complex and efficient system of biological defense against pathogens and parasites. This system involves the following: the integument and gut as physical barriers to infection, coordinated responses of several subpopulations of hemocytes when these barriers are breached, and the induced synthesis of antimicrobial peptides and proteins, primarily by the fat body. The purpose in the present study was to verify a Toll receptor (MsToll) expression in Melipona scutellaris. By semiquantitative RT-PCR we evaluate the MsToll levels at different development stages and in different M. scutellaris workers tissues. The MsToll expression in the immune response was evaluated by real time RT-PCR in workers infected with Escherichia coli (gram-negative). Our data showed lower MsToll expression in the larval stage compared with other development stages. The specific tissue analysis showed that its expression in intestine was significantly higher compared with other tissues analyzed. Furthermore, the MsToll levels in innate immune response of M. scutellaris showed four folds enhanced in bees infected with E. coli compared with control. / CAPITULO II: Infecção em insetos estimula uma resposta defensiva complexa. O reconhecimento de patógenos pode ser realizado pelos hemócitos ou proteínas que se ligam especificamente em microorganismos com padrões moleculares específicos, os chamados (PAMPs). Diferentes células da hemolinfa cooperam na resposta imune. Os hemócitos reconhecem os patógenos e os isolam por fagocitose, formando nódulos ou, cápsula multicelular em torno do parasita. Nesse trabalho foram identificadas as células da hemolinfa da abelha sem ferrão Melipona scutellaris e caracterizados os hemócitos envolvidos no processo de fagocitose utilizando beads de 0,5μm de diâmetro, em média, com fluorescência vermelha. Na hemolinfa do 3° instar larval de M. scutellaris foram distinguidos quatro tipos de hemócitos: prohemócitos, plasmatócitos, granulócitos e oenocitóides. No ensaio de fagocitose foram identificados plasmatócitos e granulócitos, com beads fluorescentes fagocitados no citoplasma. CAPITULO III: Insetos são continuamente expostos a microrganismos potencialmente patogênicos, mas apenas alguns contatos resultam em infecção. Insetos possuem um complexo e eficiente sistema de defesa contra patógenos e parasitas, que envolve o tegumento e intestino como barreiras físicas para infecção; respostas coordenadas de vários tipos de hemócitos quando estas barreiras são violadas e a síntese de peptídeos antimicrobianos e proteínas, principalmente pelo corpo gorduroso. Nosso objetivo foi clonar e sequenciar parcialmente um gene do sistema imune inato MsToll da abelha Melipona scutellaris. Por análises de RT-PCR semiquantitativo avaliou-se os níveis de expressão de MsToll em diferentes estágios do desenvolvimento e em diferentes tecidos de operárias de M. scutellaris. A expressão de MsToll na resposta imune foi avaliada por RT-PCR tempo real em operarias infectadas com Escherichia coli (gram-negativa). Os resultados mostraram menor expressão do gene MsToll nos estágios larvais quando comparados com os demais estágios do desenvolvimento. A análise tecido específico de MsToll mostrou que em intestino sua expressão foi significativamente maior quando relacionado com os demais tecidos analisados. Com relação aos níveis de MsToll na resposta imune observou-se o aumentou de quatro vezes dos níveis desse transcrito em abelhas infectadas com E. coli comparadas com o controle. / Mestre em Genética e Bioquímica

L’augmentation de température que subit la planète ces dernières décennies a de nombreuses conséquences dont la recrudescence de maladies infectieuses aussi bien chez l’homme que chez les animaux. Certaines populations de l’ormeau européen Haliotis tuberculata, vivant dans les zones les plus chaudes de Bretagne et de Normandie ont ainsi subi de très importantes mortalités depuis 1997, dues à la bactérie Vibrio harveyi. Cependant, certaines des populations les plus sévèrement touchées se sont aujourd’hui reconstruites et les mortalités semblent s’être arrêtées dans certaines de ces zones. La question se pose donc de l’apparition d’une résistance de l’ormeau face à cette maladie émergente. Pour répondre à cette question, les réponses à l’infection de plusieurs populations naturelles par cette bactérie ont été analysées. Une population présentant une forte résistance à la maladie a été identifiée.La voie d’entrée de la bactérie (ie. les branchies) a été identifiée comme jouant un rôle dans la résistance à l’infection. Par ailleurs, des infections successives ont permis de démontrer un effet d’amorçage immunitaire. Suite à une première exposition, une protection durant jusqu’à deux mois intervient contre l’effet d’inhibition de la phagocytose, provoquée normalement par une infection à V. harveyi. La différence d’expression de gènes des hémocytes d’ormeaux sensibles et résistants a été quantifiée par RNAseq pendant une infection expérimentale. Cette comparaison a montré une reconnaissance plus efficace du pathogène chez les résistants, par des récepteurs tels que les TLR ou les PGRP. La forte surexpression chez la population résistante, d’un gène impliqué dans la synthèse de mucine qui est l’un des composants principaux du mucus renforce l’hypothèse d’une forte implication des branchies dans la résistance. Enfin, une analyse in silico des séquences obtenues en RNAseq a permis d’apporter des preuves de l’existence d’un système de méthylation de l’ADN chez H. tuberculata ainsi qu’une possible implication de ce système dans l’adaptation de l’ormeau à son milieu. / Increasing global temperatures have numerous consequences for marine ecosystems, including the rise of infectious diseases. Certain populations of the European abalone Haliotis tucerculata have suffered from severe and recurrent mortality since 1997 due to infection caused by the bacterium Vibrio harveyi, particularly in areas with higher average summer temperatures. Given the spatial heterogeneity in mortalities, and the observation that the historically most severely impacted populations have recovered in recent years, the question of the emergence of resistance to the disease was addressed. The mortality rate in response to infection by V. harveyi was quantified experimentally in abalone originating from three natural populations, and one population exhibiting resistance to the disease was identified. In a subsequent experiment, the immune response of abalone was compared between infected individuals from a resistant and from a susceptible population. The portal of entry of the bacterium (ie. gills) was identified as playing a role in resistance. Furthermore, successive exposures of abalone to the bacterium demonstrated an immune priming effect, such that following a first exposure, phagocytosis was no longer inhibited by infection with V. harveyi, and that this improved protection against the disease lasted for at least two months. Differences in gene expression was quantified by RNAseq in the hemocytes of resistant and susceptible abalone following exposure to the pathogen. This comparison showed that resistant abalone had more effective recognition of the bacterium by receptors as the TLR or PGRP. The substantial over-expression of a gene involved in the synthesis of mucin, the main component of mucus, (UDP-GalNAC) in the resistant population, supports the interpretation of a strong involvement of gills in the resistance. Finally, an in-silico analysis of the sequences obtained from RNAseq indicate the existence of a DNA methylation system in H. tuberculata and suggested an involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in the adaptation of abalone to its environment.

L’ostréiculture constitue l'une des principales composantes de l’aquaculture. Cependant, ce secteur est confronté à des épisodes de mortalités anormales survenant aussi bien en écloseries que dans le milieu naturel, affectant les huîtres diploïdes et triploïdes et à différents stades de leur vie. Pendant les épisodes de mortalité des mollusques bivalves en France, des bactéries, initialement classées dans le groupe de V. harveyi, ont été régulièrement isolées à coté des virus de type herpès, V. splendidus ou de V. aestuarianus. Afin d'affiner l’affiliation taxonomique de ces isolats, une caractérisation génotypique et phénotypique a été réalisée. Les isolats bactériens, initialement classés dans le groupe de V. harveyi, se sont révélés génétiquement plus proches de souches du groupe V. tubiashii, reconnues comme agents pathogènes affectant larves et juvéniles de mollusques aux Etats-Unis et en Angleterre. Des outils de diagnostic ont été élaborés pour évaluer la propagation de cette espèce lors des périodes de mortalité depuis 2007, supportant cette première description de V. tubiashii en France. La virulence des isolats et la toxicité de leurs produits extracellulaires (ECPs) ont été confirmés par infections expérimentales sur des larves et des juvéniles de C. gigas. Les essais in vitro ont révélé la capacité des ECPs de V. tubiashii à perturber des fonctions immunitaires hémocytaires probablement via la dégradation de certaines protéines structurales. Finalement, des analyses protéomiques et transcriptomiques ont révélé la conjonction de multiples facteurs de virulence, y compris les métalloprotéases dans la virulence des souches françaises de V. tubiashii. / The oyster farming constitutes one of the major components of the global aquaculture. However, this sector is facing abnormal mortalities outbreaks that affect diploid and triploid oyster at their different life stages, in the hatcheries and in the field. During bivalve molluscs mortality events in France, bacteria initially classified into Harveyi group, were regularly isolated along with herpes virus, V. splendidus or V. aestuarianus. In order to fine tune the taxonomic affiliation of those isolates, a genotypic and phenotypic approach was used. The bacterial isolates, initially misclassified into the Harveyi clade, were shown to be genetically closed to V. tubiashii strains already recognized as the main causative agents of larvae and juvenile mollusc mortalities in America and in England. A diagnostic tool was developed to evaluate its spread in mortality events since 2007, supporting this first description of V. tubiashii in France. Moreover, the virulence of isolates and the toxicity of their extracellular products (ECPs) were confirmed on C. gigas larvae and juveniles by experimental infections. Using in vitro assays, French V. tubiashii ECPs revealed their ability to alter some hemocytes immune defense probably through the degradation of matrix structural proteins. Finally, proteomic and transcriptomic analyses revealed the conjunction of multiples virulence factors including metalloproteases in the virulence of the French V. tubiashii strains.

Apoptosis-induced proliferation (AiP) is a compensatory mechanism to maintain tissue size and morphology following unexpected cell loss during normal development, and may also be a contributing factor to cancer growth and drug resistance. In apoptotic cells, caspase-initiated signaling cascades lead to the downstream production of mitogenic factors and the proliferation of neighboring surviving cells. In epithelial Drosophila tissues, the Caspase-9 homolog Dronc drives AiP via activation of Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK); however, the specific mechanisms of JNK activation remain unknown. Using a model of sustained AiP that produces a hyperplastic phenotype in Drosophila eye and head tissue, I have found that caspase-induced activation of JNK during AiP depends on extracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the NADPH oxidase Duox. I found these ROS are produced early in the death-regeneration process by undifferentiated epithelial cells that have initiated the apoptotic cascade. I also found that reduction of these ROS by mis-expression of extracellular catalases was sufficient to reduce the frequency of overgrowth associated with our model of AiP. I further observed that extracellular ROS attract and activate Drosophila macrophages (hemocytes), which may in turn trigger JNK activity in epithelial cells by signaling through the TNF receptor Grindelwald. We propose that signaling back and forth between epithelial cells and hemocytes by extracellular ROS and Grindelwald drives compensatory proliferation within the epithelium, and that in cases of persistent signaling, such as in our sustained model of AiP, hemocytes play a tumor promoting role, driving overgrowth.