The magnetic field is a key feature that distinguishes magnetron sputtering from simple diode sputtering. It effectively increases the residence time of electrons close to the cathode surface and by that increases the energy efficiency of the discharge. This becomes apparent in high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) discharges, as small changes in the magnetic field can result in large variations in the discharge characteristics, notably the peak discharge current and/or the discharge voltage during a pulse. Here, we analyze the influence of the magnetic field on the electron density and temperature, how the discharge voltage is split between the cathode sheath and the ionization region, and the electron heating mechanism in a HiPIMS discharge. We relate the results to the energy efficiency of the discharge and discuss them in terms of the probability of target species ionization. The energy efficiency of the discharge is related to the fraction of pulse power absorbed by the electrons. Ohmic heating of electrons in the ionization region leads to higher energy efficiency than electron energization in the sheath. We find that the electron density and ionization probability of the sputtered species depend largely on the discharge current. The results suggest ways to adjust electron density and electron temperature using the discharge current and the magnetic field, respectively, and how they influence the ionization probability.

This thesis aimed to investigate the relativistic magnetron (RM), which is a high-power microwave (HPM) source. Since the RM can generate high-intensity microwave radiation, it can be used as a pulsed electromagnetic weapon to target electronic systems in different objects, such as drones, missiles, or vehicles. Other applications include electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing. In this thesis, a novel design of an RM with a transparent cathode configuration was investigated. This RM, referred to as the FOI-magnetron, was developed with the goal of generating the more advantageous TE11 mode of microwaves. This thesis starts with an in-depth theoretical exploration of the physics surrounding the RM, followed by a proof-of-concept study, where we compare our simulation results against published data. We then investigate the FOI-magnetron to determine if the transparent cathode configuration is more favourable than a solid cathode configuration. Particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations in MAGIC3D were used to study the RM, and extensive parameter studies were conducted for the FOI-magnetron to optimise its performance. The simulations revealed that the FOI-magnetron suffered from leakage currents. Moreover, parameter studies of the FOI-magnetron with transparent cathode demonstrated favourable TE11-mode emission of microwaves with a peak output power reaching 590 MW after 15 ns, having a frequency of 2.56 GHz, and an efficiency of 37%. Comparisons between thetransparent and solid cathode for the FOI-magnetron showed a slightly lower output power and efficiency for the transparent cathode, with minimal difference in the rise time of microwaves. Additionally, the transparent cathode exhibits a higher overall impedance and leakage currents. On the other hand, a lower back-current density on the transparent cathode and emitter was shown, resulting in less damage to the material. In this study, we found that we could reduce leakage currents by extending the interaction region without impacting the performance of the FOI-magnetron. Also, the frequency was shown to change with either a shorter emitter or a longer interaction region, allowing for frequency control. Lastly, a modified design of an RM with a semitransparent cathode showed a promisingly high efficiency of 46% with an output power of 600 MW. This design utilised endcaps, which are useful for significantly reducing leakage currents

A relativistic magnetron (RM) is a high-power microwave (HPM) source. The main objective of the RM is to generate directed electromagnetic pulses with high power, which can be used in e.g. HPM weapons and for electromagnetic compatibility testing. These pulses can disturb or damage electronic equipment. One of the main challenges when designing an RM is to generate the advantageous TE11 wave mode to the circular waveguide and antenna with high efficiency and peak power. This thesis investigates a new design of the RM, developed at the Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), referred to as the FOI magnetron. This design is based on the A6-magnetron and employs four large and two small cavities in the diffraction output of the RM, compared to the conventional design that has six identical cavities. The FOI magnetron has previously shown results that indicate the possibility of generating the TE11 wave mode. In this thesis, a literature study was performed to better understand the governing physical laws of the RM. This was followed by parametric studies using the ​​particle-in-cell code MAGIC3D for simulating the RM. To validate the simulation models, a model of a conventional RM was constructed and the results were compared against the published simulation results by Daimon and Jiang (2008).  Lastly, different geometrical properties, applied magnetic field, and applied voltage of the FOI magnetron were studied to see how they impacted the RM performance. Apart from the diffraction output, the geometry of the interaction region was studied to investigate the effect on frequency and power. The goal was to generate a clean TE11 mode in the waveguide of the RM with high efficiency. The validation yielded results that were in good agreement with the ones obtained by Daimon and Jiang (beam-to-microwave efficiencies of 37% and 36% respectively). The parameter studies of the FOI magnetron gave results that indicate a clean TE11 mode with a beam-to-microwave efficiency of ∼35% and peak powers up to 1 GW at frequencies of approximately 2.5 GHz. The studies on the interaction region showed that a shift of approximately 0.12 GHz was possible when making the rear part of the interaction region 4.5 cm longer. It was found that the length of the front of the interaction region can to some extent affect the output power. Lastly, it was found that a fraction of the output power (∼10−17%) that leaves the interaction region propagates back toward the input region and the voltage source.

A novel dispersion-managed breathing-mode semiconductor mode-locked ring laser is developed. The "breathing-mode" designation derives from the fact that intracavity pulses are alternately stretched and compressed as they circulate around the ring resonator. The pulses are stretched before entering the semiconductor gain medium to minimize the detrimental strong integrating self-phase modulation and to enable efficient pulse amplification. Subsequently compressed pulses facilitate bleaching the semiconductor saturable absorber. The intracavity pulse compression ratio is higher than 50. Down chirping when compared to up chirping allows broader mode-locked spectra and shorter pulse generation owing to temporal and spectral semiconductor gain dynamics. Pulses as short as 185 fs, with a peak power of ~230 w, and a focused intensity of ~4.6 gw/cm2 are generated by linear down chirp compensation and characterized by shg-frog method. To our knowledge, this is the highest peak power and the shortest pulse generation from an electrically pumped all-semiconductor system. The very good agreement between the simulated and the measured results verifies our understanding and ability to control the physical mechanisms involved in the pulse shaping within the ring cavity. Application trends such as continuum generation via a photonic crystal fiber, two-photon fluorescence imaging, and ultrafast pulse source for pump-probe experiments are demonstrated.

Beam combining techniques have become an important tool in the design of high-power high-brightness laser systems. Spectral beam combining (SBC) is an incoherent combining technique that does not require phase control of sources, allowing for a stable and robust system. Using SBC, beams from an array of lasers with each element operated at a different wavelength are combined into a single near-diffraction-limited beam with the same aperture using dispersive optical elements. SBC by means of volume Bragg gratings (VBGs) utilizes unique spectral response of VBGs: diffraction efficiency is close to unity when the Bragg condition is satisfied and is close to zero at multiple points corresponding to particular wavelength offsets from Bragg condition. High-efficiency VBGs can be recorded in UV-sensitive photo-thermo-refractive (PTR) glass. Narrow-band reflecting VBGs allow multi-channel SBC with high spectral density of channels. In this dissertation, experimental results of SBC with high spectral density of combined channels in two spectral regions of interest (1064 and 1550 nm) are reported. The behavior of narrow-band VBGs under high-power laser radiation is investigated. A laser system with kW-level output power and near-diffraction-limited divergence of spectrally-combined output beam is demonstrated. The system combines five randomly-polarized Yb-doped fiber lasers with 0.5 nm spectral separation in central wavelengths using narrow-band reflecting VBGs with absolute efficiency of combining > 90%. A novel design of a multi-channel high-power SBC system is suggested. In this approach, a common-cavity is created for all channels such that wavelengths of the sources are passively controlled by the combination of a common output coupler and intra-cavity VBGs which also act as combining elements. Laser wavelengths are automatically selected to match resonant wavelengths of respective VBGs. We report successful demonstration of a passively-controlled SBC system consisting of two amplifiers in a common cavity configuration. A compact and rugged monolithic SBC module based on multiplexed VBGs is introduced. Experimental results of a four-channel implementation of such module are discussed. Modular design of high-power laser systems is suggested with multiple modules arranged in a series. We show that with basic combining parameters achieved up to date, laser systems with 10 kW output power can be constructed using this arrangement. Further scaling to 100 kW power level is discussed.

No description available.

The development of high power density three-phase ac converter has been a hot topic in power electronics area due to the increasing needs in applications like electric vehicle, aircraft and aerospace, where light weight and/or low volume is usually a must. Many challenges exist due to the complicated correlations in a three-phase power converter system. In addition, with the emerging SiC device technology the operating frequency of the converter can be potentially pushed to the range from tens of kHz to hundreds of kHz at higher voltage and higher power conditions. The extended frequency range brings opportunities to further improve the power density of the converter. Technologies based on existing devices need to be revisited. In this dissertation, a systematic methodology to analyze and design the high power density three-phase ac converter is developed. All the key factors of the converter design are explored from the high density standpoint. Firstly, the criteria for the passive filter selection are derived and the relationship between the switching frequency and the size of the EMI filter is investigated. A function integration concept as well as the physical design approach is proposed. Secondly, a topology evaluation method is presented, which provides the insight into the relationships between the system constraints, operating conditions and design variables. Four topologies are then compared with the proposed approach culminating with a favored topology under the given conditions. Thirdly, a novel average model is developed for the selected topology, and used for devising a carrier-based control approach with simple calculation and good regulation performance. Fourthly, the converter failure mode operation and corresponding protection approaches are discussed and developed. Finally, a 10 kW three-phase ac/ac converter is built with the SiC devices. All the key concepts and ideas developed in this work are implemented in this hardware system and then verified by the experimental results. / Ph. D.

Today, every microprocessor is powered with a Voltage Regulator (VR), which is also known as a high current Point-of-Load converter (POL). These circuits are mostly constructed using discrete components, and populated on the motherboard. With this solution, the passive components such as inductors and capacitors are bulky. They occupy a considerable footprint on the motherboard. The problem is exacerbated with the current trend of reducing the size of all forms of portable computing equipment from laptop to netbook, increasing functionalities of PDA and smart phones. In order to solve this problem, a high power density POL needs to be developed. An integration solution was recently proposed to incorporate passive components, especially magnetic components, with active components in order to realize the needed power density for the POL. Today's discrete VR only has around 100W/in3 power density. The 3D integration concept is widely used for low current integrated POL. With this solution, a very low profile planar inductor is built as a substrate for the active components of the POL. By doing so, the POL footprint can be dramatically saved, and the available space is also fully utilized. This 3D integrated POL can achieve 300-1000W/in3 power density, however, with considerably less current. This might address the needs of small hand-held equipment such as PDA and Smart phone type of applications. It does not, however, meet the needs for such applications as netbook, laptop, desk-top and server applications where tens and hundreds of amperes are needed. So, although the high density integrated POL has been demonstrated at low current level, magnetic integration is still one of the toughest barriers for integration, especially for high current POL. In order to alleviate the intense thirst from the computing and telecom industry for high power density POL, the 3D integration concept needs be extended from low current applications to high current applications. The key technology for 3D integration is the low profile planar inductor design. Before this research, there was no general methodology to analyze and design a low profile planar inductor due to its non-uniform flux distribution, which is totally different as a conventional bulky inductor. A Low Temperature Co-fired Ceramic (LTCC) inductor is one of the most promising candidates for 3D integration for high current applications. For the LTCC inductor, besides the non-uniform flux, it also has non-linear permeability, which makes this problem even more complicated. This research focuses on penetrating modeling and design barriers for planar magnetic to develop high current 3D integrated POL with a power density dramatically higher than today's industry products in the same current level. In the beginning, a general analysis method is proposed to classify different low profile inductor structures into two types according to their flux path pattern. One is a vertical flux type; another one is a lateral flux type. The vertical flux type means that the magnetic flux path plane is perpendicular with the substrate. The lateral flux type means that the magnetic flux path plane is parallel with the substrate. This analysis method allows us to compare different inductor structures in a more general way to reveal the essential difference between them. After a very thorough study, it shows that a lateral flux structure is superior to a vertical flux structure for low profile high current inductor design from an inductance density point of view, which contradicts conventional thinking. This conclusion is not only valid for the LTCC planar inductor, which has very non-linear permeability, but is also valid for the planar inductor with other core material, which has constant permeability. Next, some inductance and loss models for a planar lateral flux inductor with a non-uniform flux are also developed. With the help of these models, different LTCC lateral flux inductor structures (single-turn structure and multi-turn structures) are compared systematically. In this comparison, the inductance density, winding loss and core loss are all considered. The proposed modeling methodology is a valuable extension of previous uniform flux inductor modeling, and can be used to solve other modeling problems, such as non-uniform flux transformer modeling. After that, a design method is proposed for the LTCC lateral flux inductor with non-uniform flux distribution. In this design method, inductor volume, core thickness, winding loss, core loss are all considered, which has not been achieved in previous conventional inductor design methods. With the help of this design method, the LTCC lateral flux inductor can be optimized to achieve small volume, small loss and low profile at the same time. Several LTCC inductor substrates are also designed and fabricated for the 3D integrated POL. Comparing the vertical flux inductor substrate with the lateral flux inductor substrate, we can see a savings of 30% on the footprint, and a much simpler fabrication process. A 1.5MHz, 5V to 1.2V, 15A 3D integrated POL converter with LTCC lateral flux inductor substrate is demonstrated with 300W/in3 power density, which has a factor of 3 improvements when compared to today's industry products. Furthermore, the LTCC lateral flux coupled inductor is proposed to further increase power density of the 3D integrated POL converter. Due to the DC flux cancelling effect, the size of LTCC planar coupled inductor can be dramatically reduced to only 50% of the LTCC planar non-coupled inductor. Compared to previous vertical flux coupled inductor prototypes, a lateral flux coupled inductor prototype is demonstrated to have a 50% core thickness reduction. A 1.5MHz, 5V to 1.2V, 40A 3D integrated POL converter with LTCC lateral flux coupled inductor substrate is demonstrated with 700W/in3 power density, which has a factor of 7 improvements when compared to today's industry POL products in the same current level. In conclusion, this research not only overcame some major academia problems about analysis and design for planar magnetic components, but also made significant contributions to the industry by successfully scaling the integrated POL from today's 1W-5W case to a 40W case. This level of integration would significantly save the cost, and valuable motherboard real estate for other critical functions, which may enable the next technological innovation for the whole computing and telecom industry. / Ph. D.

Three-phase voltage source converters(VSCs) have become the converter of choice in many ac medium and high power applications due to their many advantages, including low harmonics, high power factor, and high efficiency. Modular VSCs have also been a popular choice as building blocks to achieve even higher power, primarily through converter paralleling. In addition to high power ratings, paralleling converters can also provide system redundancy through the so-called (N+1) configuration for improved availability, as well as allow easy implementation of converter power management. Interleaving can further improve the benefit of paralleling VSCs by reducing system harmonic currents, which potentially can increase system power density. There are many challenges to implement interleaving in paralleled VSCs system due to the complicated relationships in a three-phase power converter system. In addition, to maximize the benefit of interleaving, current knowledge of symmetric interleaving is not enough. More insightful understanding of this PWM technology is necessary before implement interleaving in a real paralleled VSCs system. In this dissertation, a systematic methodology to analyze and design a paralleled three-phase voltage source converters with interleaving is developed. All the analysis and proposed control methods are investigated with the goal of maximizing the benefit of interleaving based on system requirement. The dissertation is divided into five sections. Firstly, a complete analysis studying the impact of interleaving on harmonic currents in ac and dc side passive components for paralleled VSCs is presented. The analysis performed considers the effects of modulation index, pulse-width-modulation (PWM) schemes, interleaving angle and displacement angle. Based on the analysis the method to optimize interleaving angle is proposed. Secondly, the control methods for the common mode (CM) circulating current of paralleled three-phase VSCs with discontinuous space-vector modulation (DPWM) and interleaving are proposed. With the control methods, DPWM and interleaving, which is a desirable combination, but not considered possible, can be implemented together. In addition, the total flux of integrated inter-phase inductor to limit circulating current can be minimized. Thirdly, a 15 kW three phase ac-dc rectifier is built with SiC devices. With the technologies presented in this dissertation, the specific power density can be pushed more than 2kW/lb. Fourthly, the converter system with low switching frequency is studied. Special issues such as beat phenomenon and system unbalance due to non-triplen carrier ratio is explained and solved by control methods. Other than that, an improved asymmetric space vector modulation is proposed, which can significantly reduce output current total harmonic distortion (THD) for single and interleaved VSCs system. Finally, the method to protect a system with paralleled VSCs under the occurrence of internal faults is studied. After the internal fault is detected and isolated, the paralleled VSCs system can continue work. So system reliability can be increased. / Ph. D.

The continual development of high-power-density power electronic converters is driven particularly by modern transportation applications like electrical vehicles and more electric aircraft where the space and carrier capability is limited. However, there are several challenges related to transportation applications such as fault tolerance for safety concern, high temperature operation in extreme environments and more strict electromagnetic compatibility requirement. These challenges will increase difficulties for more electrical system adoption in the transportation applications. In this dissertation, comprehensive methodologies including more efficient energy storage solution, better power electronics devices capability, better packaging performance and more compact EMI filter design are analyzed and proposed for the goal of high power density converter design in transportation applications. / Ph. D.