<p>Bergslagets museum is one of the oldest industrial museums in Sweden. It opened in 1922 in Falun, by the big mining company Stora Kopparbergs Bergslags Aktiebolag. This is a study of why a company would be interested in running a museum, why Bergslagets museum opened and who the people were that created it.</p><p>Several persons were involved in collecting and organizing the models of old machinery, letters, paintings, pictures that was to become the Bergslagets museum. This paper shows different motives behind the opening of an industrial museum in Falun and gives a presentation of its superintendants, Carl Sahlin, Alvar Silow, Erik Johan Ljungberg and Olof Söderberg. All of them were central in the creating of the Bergslagets museum, today known as Gruvmuseet i Falun.</p>

This essay is a work on Mircea Eliades's interpretation of the religious human understood as "homo religiosus" and the role of the shaman from the Eliade perspective. In Eliade human existence consists of a dichotomy between the sacred and the profane. The question is whether one can understand the concept of Eliades “axis mundi”, center of the universe? Can we create an understanding of human existence with Eliade? Can one use  phenomenology of religion as perspective for the exploration of “reality”? Furthermore, this paper aims to understand the role of the shaman has religious worldviews. Shamaism  is through an ecstatic technique traveling to other cosmic plane, in order to gain knowledge that would otherwise not be reached. Two short chapters also show examples of Swedish religious phenomenological research by Ake Hultkrantz and Carl Johan Gurt. The key issues are: What is Shamanism? How can we understand  Eliades philosophical exposition of man as homo religosus? Are Eliades theories (by Hultrantz and Gurt) represented in the Swedish scientific research? And, what is today's religion phenomenological research (by Gurt)? / Denna uppsats är ett arbete om Mircea Eliades tolkning av den religiösa människan förstådd som homo religiosus och shamanens roll hos Eliade. Hos Eliade är den mänskliga existensen uppdelad i en dikotomi mellan det heliga och det profana. Kan vi skapa en förståelse av människans existens med Eliade och hur kan vi använda religionsfenomenologin som utgångspunkt för utforskandet av ”verkligheten”?  Uppsatsens vidare syfte är att förstå vilken roll shamanen har för religiösa världsbilder. Shamanens verksamhet och centrala uppgift  är att genom en extasteknik färdas till andra kosmiska plan, för att där få kunskap som annars inte kan nås. Två korta kapitel visar även  exempel på svensk religionsfenomenologisk forskning genom Åke Hultkrantz och Carl Johan Gurt. De centrala frågorna är: Vad är shamanism? Hur ser Eliades filosofiska utläggning om människan ut? Finns Eliades teorier (genom Hultrantz och Gurt) förankrade/representerade i svensk religionsvetenskaplig forskning? Och, hur ser dagens religionsfenomenologiska forskning ut (genom Gurt)?

Denna studie grundas i tankar kring vilka individer som ligger bakom en filmproduktion. Dådet i en filmproduktion arbetar en stor skara människor blev det intressant att undersöka ochlyfta fram diskussion om hur dessa samverkar för att slutföra en produkt som baseras på envision. Studien visar också på vad som ligger bakom samverkan och hur den hierarkiskastrukturen påverkar filmarbetarnas yrkesroll. En observation har gjorts på enlångfilmsinspelning. För att fördjupa observationen har även två intervjuer gjorts medfilmarbetare. Användningen av både intervjuer och observation har gett en större inblick ifilmarbetarnas vardag.

Dissertation--Universität Frankfurt (Main), 1994. / Bibliogr. p. 311-356.

Bergslagets museum is one of the oldest industrial museums in Sweden. It opened in 1922 in Falun, by the big mining company Stora Kopparbergs Bergslags Aktiebolag. This is a study of why a company would be interested in running a museum, why Bergslagets museum opened and who the people were that created it. Several persons were involved in collecting and organizing the models of old machinery, letters, paintings, pictures that was to become the Bergslagets museum. This paper shows different motives behind the opening of an industrial museum in Falun and gives a presentation of its superintendants, Carl Sahlin, Alvar Silow, Erik Johan Ljungberg and Olof Söderberg. All of them were central in the creating of the Bergslagets museum, today known as Gruvmuseet i Falun.

Syftet med denna studie är att jämföra hur Dagens Nyheter respektive Aftonbladet rapporterade om de fängslade svenska journalisterna i Etiopien. Martin Schibbye och Johan Persson greps den 1 juli 2011 i Ogadenregionen i östra Etiopien efter att illegalt ha tagit sig in i landet med hjälp av den terrorstämplade gerillan ONLF. Händelsen fick stor uppmärksamhet i svenska medier.  Vi ville med vår undersökning studera om morgontidningar, i vårt fall Dagens Nyheter, tar efter kvällstidningarnas sätt att rapportera om stora händelser. Vi valde ut åtta artikelsidor eller uppslag ur de båda tidningar att analysera och formulerade följande frågeställningar: Hur presenterades nyheterna kring Johan Persson och Martin Schibbyes tillfångatagande, rättegång, dom och frigivning i Dagens Nyheter respektive Aftonbladet, i de artikelsidor och uppslag som vi valde ut? Vad finns det för likheter och skillnader i de artikelsidor och uppslag vi valt ut från Dagens Nyheter respektive Aftonbladet gällande tabloidisering? Utifrån dessa frågeställningar konstruerade vi en kvalitativ textanalys med kvantitativa inslag där vi ställde vi frågor till texterna som vi hade formulerat utifrån begreppet tabloidisering, för att undersöka om texterna var tabloidiserade. Resultatet visade att det fanns klara tendenser till tabloidsering i de sidor och uppslag vi analyserade i Dagens Nyheter. Detta resultat förklarade vi främst med tidningsbranschens ekonomiska situation. Vi fann även att det fanns stora likheter, både text- och bildmässigt i de undersökta tidningarna. Detta resultat förklarade vi huvudsakligen med medielogiken.

The aim of this study is to examine the use of famous historical or fictional persons in place branding. It seeks to analyze the images of places that are produced, and the representations of persons that are used in branding practices. Largely this use is located within a tourist discourse, begging the question how tourists take part in the shaping of these cities. In sum, the study aims to examine constructions of the past and the present, as well as representations of gender. The main question is which parts of the history of a city are described and which sites are highlighted. Four cases studies are presented. First, the uses of the heritage connected with author Selma Lagerlöf in and around Sunne are examined, in particular her former residence, Mårbacka, now musealized. Second, Uppsala's and Småland's uses of the Carl Linnaeus heritage are surveyed. Third, the uses of inventor Johan Petter Johansson in Enköping are studied, and fourth the tourist and heritage practices around fictional police detective Kurt Wallander in Ystad are examined. Taken at face value, these examples differ from each other in many ways. The aim of the dissertation is to track these differences, but also the likenesses in practices, meaning production and visualizations. In sum, the aim of this dissertation is to examine how the productions of meaning are influenced through the use of these individuals. How do visitors influence the production on these heritage sites? Is there room for change in descriptions of persons and places? How are ideas of authenticity produced when places are viewed through one individual? What ideas of gender and masculinity are produced?

The main objective of this study was to document, systematize and analyse the contributions of some leading Physical Educationists to the establishment and development of Physical Education in South Africa. The main methodological approach used to realise this objective was the historical-analytical method, by which the data were systematized and analysed thematically and chronologically. With a view to the systematization of data, tilt! following main aspects were chosen according to which the contributions were analysed: • Training and instruction • Research and publications • Administrative and organisational aspects - in particular to Physical Educational and sports associations and professional journals. Although several factors were considered in determining the value of the contributions, the emphasis fell on the nature, extent and quality of the contributions made in the fields already mentioned. To do research on only a few Physical Educationalists, a selection had to be made from 35 leading persons in this field in South Africa. Information on the work, approaches and involvement of these 35 persons were obtained by personal interviews and correspondence, and by studying documents, annual reports, minutes, journals, newspapers, dissertations and theses. After the relevant information had been gathered, the following criteria were applied to analyse the contributions of the chosen persons and to select three of them for further study: 1. Training and instruction 1.1. Establishment and development of the subject 1.1.1. Administrative control over training and instruction 1.1.2. Institution of courses and subjects, as well as the compilation of syllabuses 1.1.3. Implementation and expansion of facilities and equipment 1.1.4. Methods of presentation and aids used 1.2. Personal influence 2. Research 2.1. Own research 2.2. Project leadership and assistance to students 2.3. Publications 2.4. Papers presented 3. Administrative and organising aspects 3.1. Associations for Physical Education 3.2. Sports associations 3.3. Physical Educational journals 3.4. Festivals and public appearances 3.5. Other projects, such as fitness programmes and film production The application of this set of criteria to the nature, extent and quality of the work by the previously mentioned 35 persons facilitated the selection process, but still could not succeed in pinpointing only three persons for the study. For this reason, additional criteria were chosen according to which three persons could responsibly be selected. These criteria were connected with aspects such as the geographical regions where the persons worked for the longest periods of time; the particular subjects or fields of interest in which they specialised; the specific fields in which they made their most important contributions; and the period in which they made the contributions. On the basis of these additional criteria, the following three persons were selected: J.W. Postma, C.M. Smit and D.P.J. Smith The contributions of these three persons to the development of the subject of Physical Education in South Africa were dealt with under the following headings: 1. Biographical sketch 2. Views on Physical Education and sport 3. Contributions to training and instruction 4. Research contributions 5. Contributions particular to Physical Educational and sports associations and professional journals To provide the necessary background information and to get a dear picture of the position these three persons had in the history of Physical Education in South Africa, as well as the conditions in which they had to work, one chapter was set aside for a survey of the development of Physical Education in South Africa between 1900 and 1982. Following that, the contributions of J.W. Postma, C.M. Smit and O.P.J. Smith to the development of the subject were dealt with in separate chapters. During the study the following conclusions were drawn with regard to the contributions of J.W. Postma, C.M. Smit and D.P.J. Smith to the development of Physical Education in South Africa. J W POSTMA Postma's contribution should be viewed in the light of the circumstances in which Physical Education was presented at that time. These were the formative years of Physical Education and Postma had to do pioneering work in various fields. Whereas certain aspects of the subject are nowadays being taken for granted, Postma then had to fight for the subject's right of existence. Postma's most important contribution with regard to the training of students of Physical Education was his management and the development of the Department of Physical Education at the University of Stellenbosch. He made a special contribution to the institution and development of courses and subjects, as well as the drafting of syllabuses. He was responsible for the institution of the section of Tests and Measurements in the Physical Education course at the Department. The importance of including this section in a Physical Education course has since been realised by other educational institutions. It is therefore largely owing to Postma (as well as Smith) that Tests and Measurements (later called Evaluation) was included in the courses for Physical Education students in South Africa. Besides Tests and Measurements, Postma also contributed to other theoretical sections of the subject such as Anthropometry, Principles, Method and Organisation, and Administration. He expanded factual knowledge on these subjects at Physical Education Departments throughout South Africa by means of publications and papers. Postma also strove for the implementation of better training facilities, especially in research. He also saw to it that the most vital scientific reference works and journals were made available to Physical Education students. Postma was an enthusiastic lecturer• and inspired his students. Postma's most important contribution in the field of research lies in the fact that he was one of the first Physical Educationalists in South Africa to begin research on the subject. Not only did he personally undertake many research projects, but he also inspired his students to do research and gave them valuable critical guidance in their work. The fact that Postma was an expert in the field of Physical Education as a whole, led to several publications on a wide spectrum of subsections within the subject. The large number of publications for which he was responsible, ensured that his views on the subject were propagated throughout South Africa. His book Inleiding tot die Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde should be seen as his biggest and most important research contribution to the development of the subject. Postma's involvement with Physical Educational journals and organisations in South Africa ensured growth in these two fields of the subject. Postma made a particularly valuable contribution to the development of the South African Association for Sport Science, Physical Education and Recreation. He was responsible in various capacities and in several fields for the establishment and development of this organisation. He can be seen as one of the most important founder members of this body, which came to be known as SAASSPER, and which is highly esteemed. C.M. SMIT As was the case with Postma, Smit had to pioneer and found the subject and had to fight for its development and survival. His contributions were especially in the following fields: the establishment and development of Physical Education at schools and Physical Educational organisations; the establishment and development of Physical Education and sport at the University of Pretoria; the development of the subject by means of research and publications, as well as through services rendered to Physical Educational and sports associations. With regard to the development of training and instruction as part of Physical Education, Smit did important work in two aspects. In the first instance, he did pioneering work as the first organiser of Physical Education at the Union Education Department and the National Advisory Council for Physical Education (NACPE). He had the gigantic task of establishing Physical Education at the widely diffused schools of the Union Education Department and to advise all voluntary physical culture clubs throughout the country. To succeed in this, he had to design new systems, present training courses, give professional advice, decide on the purchase and supply of Physical Educational and sports equipment, and manage several administrative affairs. One of Smit's biggest assets was his ability to instill in teachers and instructors his own knowledge, love and enthusiasm for Physical Education. During his involvement with the Union Education Department and NACPE Smit was responsible for the compilation of the national syllabus for Physical Education in South Africa. This can rightly be seen as one of Smit's most important contributions to improve the instruction of Physical Education in South Africa. Secondly, Smit made a great contribution to promote the training and instruction of Physical Education in South Africa by the work he did as professor at the Depa1•tment of Physical Education and as Director of the Institute for Physical Education at the University of Pretoria. He had to establish and manage both these departments. He was responsible for the creation of sport structures at the University of Pretoria, the planning and development of sport grounds, the purchase of equipment and for adv1sing sport clubs. As head of the Department of Physical Education, he had a big part in the instituting and developing courses and subjects, as well as in making adjustments and changes to upgrade the quality of training of Physical Education students. The standard of training was improved further by Smit's constant efforts to increase the quality of the facilities used in training. In this regard, special mention has to be made of the construction of the building in which the Department of Physical Education is housed, and the building of the L. C. de Villiers Stadium and sport grounds. The efficient way in which Smit managed the Department of Physical Education led to the expedient and effective training of students. Apart from the efficient control which Smit had over the Physical Education building and its staff, he also made an effort to maintain good relation between the personnel and students. For example, he took the initiative in organising Physical Education tours and forming a Physical Education Society at the University of Pretoria. Because of the heavy work load that Smit had to bear during his employment at the University of Pretoria and the Union Education Department, he had little time left for research work and publications. He tried to expand his knowledge of the subject by studying publications, undertaking study tours and attending conferences on Physical Education. His contribution to research on the subject consisted of some research projects he completed on his own, as well as guidance to post-graduate students. With regard to publications, he was responsible for some books (mostly as co-author) and several articles published in journals such as Physical Education and Vigor. Smit contributed his services to outside organisations. He was involved in the South African Association for Sport Science, Physical Education and Recreation from r its inception. During this time he acted as chairman (1952) and worked on several of the organisation's committees. Apart from being involved in several branches of sport at the University of Pretoria, he also offered his services to national and provincial sport bodies. D.P.J. SMITH As was the case with Postma and Smit, Smith's contributions to the development of Physical Education in South Africa should be seen against the circumstances surrounding the subject at that time. Because the subject was not given recognition, Smith had to do pioneering work in many fields. He was one of the few Physical Educationalists who succeeded in making a balanced contribution to each of the following aspects of the subject: training, research and services rendered to outside organisations. Smith's contributions in the field of training are mainly related to his involvement with the Potchefstroom Teachers' Training College and the Potchefstroom University. He was the first person to be permanently appointed as lecturer of Physical Education at the Potchefstroom University. In this capacity he was not only responsible for the training of Physical Education students, but also for the organis11tion and presentation of advancement classes for teachers. In both cases Smith did pioneering work, especially in the establishment and development of Physical Education courses and subjects, as well as the compilation of syllabuses for these subjects. Because of his efforts to improve the quality and quantity of Physical Educational facilities and equipment at the College, the standard of instruction improved. During this time Smith was also responsible for the organisation and presentation of several exhibitions related to Physical Education. In this way the public was introduced to the nature, content and methods of instruction of the subject, and prospective students were motivated and recruited. Smith's work as lecturer, marked by enthusiasm, energy and purposefulness in presenting the subject, played a definite role in improving the standard of training at the College's Department of Physical Education. The contributions Smith made to training during his involvement with the Potchehtroom University, can be summarised as follows: In the first place he established and developed the Department of Physical Education at the University. Due to his capable administration of the Department, the training of students could be effected successfully and effectively. In the second place Smith did pioneering work in the institution of courses and subjects, as well as the compilation of syllabuses. He saw to it that the contents of the courses were scientific, applicable and practical. In the third instance, the quality of instruction which Smith offered his students was exceptionally high. Not only were his lectures well prepared, systematic and of a high standard, but his method of presentation was also stimulating, interesting and very effective. His example had a positive influence on his students. In the fourth instance, the standard of instruction was improved due to the acquisition of better facilities and equipment, which was largely the result of Smith's efforts. Smith's contributions in the field of research in Physical Education can be summarised as follows: He did pioneering work in establishing research in Physical Education at the Potchefstroom University. He provided expert and inspired guidance to students in their own research projects. He maintained good contact with experts and remained informed on new developments in the subject by attending conferences and symposia. He was responsible for several publications which were scientific, orderly and polished. With regard to services rendered to outside organisations, Smith made large and valuable contributions. Apart from his involvement with organisations such as the Road Safety Council and the Church, Smith did extremely valuable work for Physical Educational and sports associations. He was involved in the research section and several committees of the Physical Educational organisation SAASSPER, and made valuable contributions during discussions at its conferences. In the field of sport, he offered his services in various capacities, such as coach, administrator, selector, official and president, on club and national level. Although he was principally concerned with athletics and tennis, his assistance was valuable to sportsmen across the board. For him it was his life's work to be of service to sportsmen and sports women. He was also of service to the public through his involvement with several fitness projects. In the 1940's he presented exercise classes to the public in Parys, and during the 1960's and 70's he played a leading role in fitness projects launched by the National Fitness Scheme. CONCLUSION This study showed that the following three leading South African Physical Educationalists - J.W. Postma, C.M. Smit and D.P.J. Smith - had made valuable contributions to the development of Physical Education in South Africa. Their contributions were analysed under the following headings: Training and instruction Research and publications Administrative and organising aspects - in particular to Physical Educational and sports associations and professional journals All three of them succeeded to a large extent in maintaining a healthy balance between these three aspects of their work. The researcher hopes that this study will give the Physical Educationalist of today new insight into the origins of this subject and that there will be a renewed appreciation of the work done by the pioneers of Physical Education in South Africa. / Proefskrif (DEd)--PU vir CHO, 1987

The main objective of this study was to document, systematize and analyse the contributions of some leading Physical Educationists to the establishment and development of Physical Education in South Africa. The main methodological approach used to realise this objective was the historical-analytical method, by which the data were systematized and analysed thematically and chronologically. With a view to the systematization of data, tilt! following main aspects were chosen according to which the contributions were analysed: • Training and instruction • Research and publications • Administrative and organisational aspects - in particular to Physical Educational and sports associations and professional journals. Although several factors were considered in determining the value of the contributions, the emphasis fell on the nature, extent and quality of the contributions made in the fields already mentioned. To do research on only a few Physical Educationalists, a selection had to be made from 35 leading persons in this field in South Africa. Information on the work, approaches and involvement of these 35 persons were obtained by personal interviews and correspondence, and by studying documents, annual reports, minutes, journals, newspapers, dissertations and theses. After the relevant information had been gathered, the following criteria were applied to analyse the contributions of the chosen persons and to select three of them for further study: 1. Training and instruction 1.1. Establishment and development of the subject 1.1.1. Administrative control over training and instruction 1.1.2. Institution of courses and subjects, as well as the compilation of syllabuses 1.1.3. Implementation and expansion of facilities and equipment 1.1.4. Methods of presentation and aids used 1.2. Personal influence 2. Research 2.1. Own research 2.2. Project leadership and assistance to students 2.3. Publications 2.4. Papers presented 3. Administrative and organising aspects 3.1. Associations for Physical Education 3.2. Sports associations 3.3. Physical Educational journals 3.4. Festivals and public appearances 3.5. Other projects, such as fitness programmes and film production The application of this set of criteria to the nature, extent and quality of the work by the previously mentioned 35 persons facilitated the selection process, but still could not succeed in pinpointing only three persons for the study. For this reason, additional criteria were chosen according to which three persons could responsibly be selected. These criteria were connected with aspects such as the geographical regions where the persons worked for the longest periods of time; the particular subjects or fields of interest in which they specialised; the specific fields in which they made their most important contributions; and the period in which they made the contributions. On the basis of these additional criteria, the following three persons were selected: J.W. Postma, C.M. Smit and D.P.J. Smith The contributions of these three persons to the development of the subject of Physical Education in South Africa were dealt with under the following headings: 1. Biographical sketch 2. Views on Physical Education and sport 3. Contributions to training and instruction 4. Research contributions 5. Contributions particular to Physical Educational and sports associations and professional journals To provide the necessary background information and to get a dear picture of the position these three persons had in the history of Physical Education in South Africa, as well as the conditions in which they had to work, one chapter was set aside for a survey of the development of Physical Education in South Africa between 1900 and 1982. Following that, the contributions of J.W. Postma, C.M. Smit and O.P.J. Smith to the development of the subject were dealt with in separate chapters. During the study the following conclusions were drawn with regard to the contributions of J.W. Postma, C.M. Smit and D.P.J. Smith to the development of Physical Education in South Africa. J W POSTMA Postma's contribution should be viewed in the light of the circumstances in which Physical Education was presented at that time. These were the formative years of Physical Education and Postma had to do pioneering work in various fields. Whereas certain aspects of the subject are nowadays being taken for granted, Postma then had to fight for the subject's right of existence. Postma's most important contribution with regard to the training of students of Physical Education was his management and the development of the Department of Physical Education at the University of Stellenbosch. He made a special contribution to the institution and development of courses and subjects, as well as the drafting of syllabuses. He was responsible for the institution of the section of Tests and Measurements in the Physical Education course at the Department. The importance of including this section in a Physical Education course has since been realised by other educational institutions. It is therefore largely owing to Postma (as well as Smith) that Tests and Measurements (later called Evaluation) was included in the courses for Physical Education students in South Africa. Besides Tests and Measurements, Postma also contributed to other theoretical sections of the subject such as Anthropometry, Principles, Method and Organisation, and Administration. He expanded factual knowledge on these subjects at Physical Education Departments throughout South Africa by means of publications and papers. Postma also strove for the implementation of better training facilities, especially in research. He also saw to it that the most vital scientific reference works and journals were made available to Physical Education students. Postma was an enthusiastic lecturer• and inspired his students. Postma's most important contribution in the field of research lies in the fact that he was one of the first Physical Educationalists in South Africa to begin research on the subject. Not only did he personally undertake many research projects, but he also inspired his students to do research and gave them valuable critical guidance in their work. The fact that Postma was an expert in the field of Physical Education as a whole, led to several publications on a wide spectrum of subsections within the subject. The large number of publications for which he was responsible, ensured that his views on the subject were propagated throughout South Africa. His book Inleiding tot die Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde should be seen as his biggest and most important research contribution to the development of the subject. Postma's involvement with Physical Educational journals and organisations in South Africa ensured growth in these two fields of the subject. Postma made a particularly valuable contribution to the development of the South African Association for Sport Science, Physical Education and Recreation. He was responsible in various capacities and in several fields for the establishment and development of this organisation. He can be seen as one of the most important founder members of this body, which came to be known as SAASSPER, and which is highly esteemed. C.M. SMIT As was the case with Postma, Smit had to pioneer and found the subject and had to fight for its development and survival. His contributions were especially in the following fields: the establishment and development of Physical Education at schools and Physical Educational organisations; the establishment and development of Physical Education and sport at the University of Pretoria; the development of the subject by means of research and publications, as well as through services rendered to Physical Educational and sports associations. With regard to the development of training and instruction as part of Physical Education, Smit did important work in two aspects. In the first instance, he did pioneering work as the first organiser of Physical Education at the Union Education Department and the National Advisory Council for Physical Education (NACPE). He had the gigantic task of establishing Physical Education at the widely diffused schools of the Union Education Department and to advise all voluntary physical culture clubs throughout the country. To succeed in this, he had to design new systems, present training courses, give professional advice, decide on the purchase and supply of Physical Educational and sports equipment, and manage several administrative affairs. One of Smit's biggest assets was his ability to instill in teachers and instructors his own knowledge, love and enthusiasm for Physical Education. During his involvement with the Union Education Department and NACPE Smit was responsible for the compilation of the national syllabus for Physical Education in South Africa. This can rightly be seen as one of Smit's most important contributions to improve the instruction of Physical Education in South Africa. Secondly, Smit made a great contribution to promote the training and instruction of Physical Education in South Africa by the work he did as professor at the Depa1•tment of Physical Education and as Director of the Institute for Physical Education at the University of Pretoria. He had to establish and manage both these departments. He was responsible for the creation of sport structures at the University of Pretoria, the planning and development of sport grounds, the purchase of equipment and for adv1sing sport clubs. As head of the Department of Physical Education, he had a big part in the instituting and developing courses and subjects, as well as in making adjustments and changes to upgrade the quality of training of Physical Education students. The standard of training was improved further by Smit's constant efforts to increase the quality of the facilities used in training. In this regard, special mention has to be made of the construction of the building in which the Department of Physical Education is housed, and the building of the L. C. de Villiers Stadium and sport grounds. The efficient way in which Smit managed the Department of Physical Education led to the expedient and effective training of students. Apart from the efficient control which Smit had over the Physical Education building and its staff, he also made an effort to maintain good relation between the personnel and students. For example, he took the initiative in organising Physical Education tours and forming a Physical Education Society at the University of Pretoria. Because of the heavy work load that Smit had to bear during his employment at the University of Pretoria and the Union Education Department, he had little time left for research work and publications. He tried to expand his knowledge of the subject by studying publications, undertaking study tours and attending conferences on Physical Education. His contribution to research on the subject consisted of some research projects he completed on his own, as well as guidance to post-graduate students. With regard to publications, he was responsible for some books (mostly as co-author) and several articles published in journals such as Physical Education and Vigor. Smit contributed his services to outside organisations. He was involved in the South African Association for Sport Science, Physical Education and Recreation from r its inception. During this time he acted as chairman (1952) and worked on several of the organisation's committees. Apart from being involved in several branches of sport at the University of Pretoria, he also offered his services to national and provincial sport bodies. D.P.J. SMITH As was the case with Postma and Smit, Smith's contributions to the development of Physical Education in South Africa should be seen against the circumstances surrounding the subject at that time. Because the subject was not given recognition, Smith had to do pioneering work in many fields. He was one of the few Physical Educationalists who succeeded in making a balanced contribution to each of the following aspects of the subject: training, research and services rendered to outside organisations. Smith's contributions in the field of training are mainly related to his involvement with the Potchefstroom Teachers' Training College and the Potchefstroom University. He was the first person to be permanently appointed as lecturer of Physical Education at the Potchefstroom University. In this capacity he was not only responsible for the training of Physical Education students, but also for the organis11tion and presentation of advancement classes for teachers. In both cases Smith did pioneering work, especially in the establishment and development of Physical Education courses and subjects, as well as the compilation of syllabuses for these subjects. Because of his efforts to improve the quality and quantity of Physical Educational facilities and equipment at the College, the standard of instruction improved. During this time Smith was also responsible for the organisation and presentation of several exhibitions related to Physical Education. In this way the public was introduced to the nature, content and methods of instruction of the subject, and prospective students were motivated and recruited. Smith's work as lecturer, marked by enthusiasm, energy and purposefulness in presenting the subject, played a definite role in improving the standard of training at the College's Department of Physical Education. The contributions Smith made to training during his involvement with the Potchehtroom University, can be summarised as follows: In the first place he established and developed the Department of Physical Education at the University. Due to his capable administration of the Department, the training of students could be effected successfully and effectively. In the second place Smith did pioneering work in the institution of courses and subjects, as well as the compilation of syllabuses. He saw to it that the contents of the courses were scientific, applicable and practical. In the third instance, the quality of instruction which Smith offered his students was exceptionally high. Not only were his lectures well prepared, systematic and of a high standard, but his method of presentation was also stimulating, interesting and very effective. His example had a positive influence on his students. In the fourth instance, the standard of instruction was improved due to the acquisition of better facilities and equipment, which was largely the result of Smith's efforts. Smith's contributions in the field of research in Physical Education can be summarised as follows: He did pioneering work in establishing research in Physical Education at the Potchefstroom University. He provided expert and inspired guidance to students in their own research projects. He maintained good contact with experts and remained informed on new developments in the subject by attending conferences and symposia. He was responsible for several publications which were scientific, orderly and polished. With regard to services rendered to outside organisations, Smith made large and valuable contributions. Apart from his involvement with organisations such as the Road Safety Council and the Church, Smith did extremely valuable work for Physical Educational and sports associations. He was involved in the research section and several committees of the Physical Educational organisation SAASSPER, and made valuable contributions during discussions at its conferences. In the field of sport, he offered his services in various capacities, such as coach, administrator, selector, official and president, on club and national level. Although he was principally concerned with athletics and tennis, his assistance was valuable to sportsmen across the board. For him it was his life's work to be of service to sportsmen and sports women. He was also of service to the public through his involvement with several fitness projects. In the 1940's he presented exercise classes to the public in Parys, and during the 1960's and 70's he played a leading role in fitness projects launched by the National Fitness Scheme. CONCLUSION This study showed that the following three leading South African Physical Educationalists - J.W. Postma, C.M. Smit and D.P.J. Smith - had made valuable contributions to the development of Physical Education in South Africa. Their contributions were analysed under the following headings: Training and instruction Research and publications Administrative and organising aspects - in particular to Physical Educational and sports associations and professional journals All three of them succeeded to a large extent in maintaining a healthy balance between these three aspects of their work. The researcher hopes that this study will give the Physical Educationalist of today new insight into the origins of this subject and that there will be a renewed appreciation of the work done by the pioneers of Physical Education in South Africa. / Proefskrif (DEd)--PU vir CHO, 1987

1. OBJETIVOS Y ENFOQUE GENERAL.La tesis ocupa de un asunto de larga tradición entre filósofos, metodólogos y científicos empíricos: la relación entre teoría social y práctica política, clave y polémico respecto de la fundamentación y el quehacer de las ciencias sociales. No en vano la teoría social en general (o la teoría política y las Relaciones Internacionales en particular) se conciben a menudo no sólo como un procedimiento para analizar, comprender y explicar políticas pasadas y presentes, sino también como guía potencial, e incluso imperativo, para la acción política. Así las cosas, preguntarse por la posibilidad y legitimidad de hacer del conocimiento social la base de la acción, presupone la elucidación de un interrogante previo: ¿Es posible contar con un conocimiento social objetivo u objetivable? En suma, un nuevo encuentro con la vieja y recurrente discusión sobre la objetividad de las ciencias sociales.Existen diversas maneras de acercarse al problema de la objetividad de y en las ciencias sociales. Probablemente la más clásica es la que reduce el problema a discernir si éstas deberían asemejarse -metodológicamente- a las ciencias naturales, consideradas corno lo más cercano a un discurso objetivo. Quienes han optado por este enfoque suelen acabar postulando su acuerdo o disconformidad con asunciones más o menos fuertes al respecto, o bien defendiendo el eclecticismo.La presente tesis no participa de tal costumbre de abordar el problema, puesto que se interesa por un caso concreto: la "peace research" y -en parte- su vinculación con las Relaciones Internacionales en un momento en que en ambas áreas priva el pluralismo teórico y la falta de modelos explicativos genéricos. En ese sentido el titulo general de la tesis, "La objetividad de las ciencias sociales", debe interpretarse corno el marco en el que se resuelve el caso que se estudia: la gestación de la "peace research" y su vinculación con las Relaciones Internacionales, dos disciplinas con una notoria carga del -usando la expresión de Gunnar Myrdal- "elemento político", que nunca han renunciado a la dimensión prescriptiva y normativa.Esa óptica permite singularizar los escollos y eventuales errores de autores que a menudo no diferencian nítidamente las dos preguntas básicas que subyacen tras el problema de la objetividad: ¿es posible sostener o defender (y por consiguiente verificar o refutar) con independencia de valores una teoría social determinada? ¿Se puede desarrollar o articular una teoría social dada con independencia de los valores? La tesis mantiene que la respuesta a la primera cuestión debe ser afirmativa, y negativa para la segunda. De esa forma se puede mostrar que, tras la reconstrucción del itinerario de la investigación para la paz, la confusión entre neutralidad moral y objetividad explica en gran medida la irrelevancia científica de parte de su producción intelectual.La discusión acerca de la objetividad en ambas disciplinas está muy relacionada con sus orígenes e intenciones. Las Relaciones Internacionales han estado, y a veces o en ciertos autores aún lo están, muy vinculadas a la legitimación de la conducta del Estado más allá de sus fronteras: prueba de ello es que puede fecharse su "nacimiento" el 30 de mayo de 1919, cuando las delegaciones estadounidense y británica que se ocupaban de negociar el fin de la I Guerra Mundial convinieron en fundar sendas instituciones científicas para la investigación de las relaciones internacionales, el "Royal Institute of International Affairs" (británico) y el "Council on Foreign Relations" (estadounidense). La investigación para la paz, por su lado, se crea a partir de mediados de los cincuenta, aparentemente corno rechazo a gran parte de las tendencias dominantes en las ciencias sociales, de la mano de la "behavioral revolution" comandada entre otros por Lasswell y Karl Deutsch y bajo el suelo nutricio del protestantismo anglosajón y nórdico. Su pretensión era combinar el ideal de cientificidad de los "behavioristas" con cierto sentido de misión, a la de cuáqueros prestigiosos corno Kenneth Boulding, uno de los pioneros de la disciplina. El objetivo explícito era utilizar los recursos de la investigación científica (natural y social) para comprender e impedir las causas de la dolencia internacional, en particular de las guerras.2. ESTRUCTURA DEL TRABAJOLa tesis persigue pues dos cosas: 1) la reconstrucción in extenso, de la evolución de la investigación para la paz, algo no intentado, hasta donde yo sé, hasta el momento. Para ello se ha manejado la practica totalidad de sus trabajos significativos y se han cribado las principales revistas de la(s) comunidad(es), en particular las que tenían pretensión teórica y normativa; 2) un tratamiento relativamente pormenorizado, específico y crítica de la obra del que se considera su máximo exponente europeo y animador de los debates desde finales de los años sesenta, Johan Galtung.La estructura de la tesis en tres apartados y ocho capítulos se adecua a los dos objetivos que acabo de mencionar.La reconstrucción de la evolución de la investigación para la paz se articula en torno a cuatro ejes:a) el macroanálisis: la exploración de las dificultades para acotar el campo, la singularización de unas características distintivas y la constatación de la crisis que supone la quiebra del ideal reformador inicial y la duda sobre si el empeño debe considerarse ciencia aplicada o simple acumulación de conocimientos (Parte Primera, "Paisaje para la polémica", capítulos 1 y 2, contexto de surgimiento y rasgos distintivos).b) el repaso crítica a las periodizaciones al uso y la elaboración de nuevos criterios merced a la combinación de factores cuantitativos y elementos cualitativos corno las pautas de diseminación, el análisis de la literatura periódica, los debates internos y la propia evolución del sistema internacional. El resultado final es la propuesta y justificación de una periodización alternativa pensada corno elemento ordenador de la evolución de la "disciplina" (Parte Primera, Capítulo III).c) un recorrido histórico, que en realidad constituye una "reconstrucción racional") por mencionar mas que usar -dado que estamos ante una disciplina social- la noción acuñada por Lakatos) de la "peace research" que busca la singularización de sus grandes temas trazar un mapa de su discurrir a menudo errático y evaluar sus realizaciones. A ello se dedica íntegramente la "Parte Segunda" ), los capítulos IV ("Antecedentes y Padres Fundadores"), V ("La lucha por la institucionalización") y VI ("La proliferación vertical").A la hora de abordar la obra de Galtung) se ha optado por un doble procedimiento:a) poner un énfasis especial en sus aportaciones, propuestas, intervenciones. en los capítulos dedicados a la reconstrucción de las fases de la disciplina.b) dedicarle el "Apartado Tercero" (Capítulos VII y VIII), que disecciona los conceptos centrales de su obra a partir de la división en tres etapas intelectuales, respectivamente: la gandhiana, la de inspiración estructural-funcionalista y la expansiva.La tesis se cierra con unas conclusiones, que complementan diversos balances y síntesis parciales relativas a autores y/o aspectos o etapas que cierran varios capítulos o apartados previos. La pluralidad de objetivos) la combinación de macroanálisis con análisis pormenorizado de un autor explican que el apartado de conclusiones finales se dedique -además de una síntesis global- a retornar la afirmación que articula el conjunto del trabajo: la influencia decisiva de la confusión entre objetividad científica y neutralidad moral en la parquedad de resultados de la "peace research" en cuanto a producción de conocimientos.