Soziale, politische und geografische Prozesse der Stadtentwicklung in Konflikt- und Grenzregionen werden in dieser Dissertation durch eine Kombination von Satellitenbildern und Feldforschung analysiert. Das Untersuchungsgebiet ist die Grenzregion zwischen der Demokratischen Republik Kongo (DRK) und Ruanda, die seit Anfang der 1990er Jahre von zwischen- und innerstaatlichen bewaffneten Konflikten betroffen ist. Im Fokus der Analyse liegt Goma, die Provinzhauptstadt von Nord-Kivu im Osten der DRK. Zusätzlich wird ein Vergleich mit Gomas Zwillingsstadt Gisenyi in Ruandas Westprovinz gezogen. Die Literatur zu urbanen Räumen im Kongo und in gesamt Subsahara-Afrika bezieht sich häufig auf Primärstädte. Über die Entwicklung von Sekundärstädten in Konfliktzonen, für die es kaum räumlich explizite Studien gibt, ist wenig bekannt. Diese Arbeit bietet zwei sich ergänzende Perspektiven durch die Kombination von Satellitenbildanalyse mit semi-strukturierten Interviews und Beobachtungen aus mehreren Forschungsaufenthalten. Das zweite Kapitel verwendet eine Zeitreihe hochaufgelöster Landsat-Szenen, um die Expansion von Goma zwischen 1986 und 2015 zu analysieren. Dieser Zeitrahmen umfasst internen Konflikt in Ruanda (1990-1994), die Kongo-Kriege (1996-2003) und deren von Gewalt geprägte Folgezeit. Das dritte Kapitel basiert auf der Analyse sehr hochauflösender Satellitenbilder. Eine feinskalige Kartierung von Urbanisierungsmustern zwischen 2005 und 2014 wird mit verantwortlichen Akteursgruppen verbunden. Das vierte Kapitel erweitert die Analyse auf Gomas ruandische Nachbarstadt Gisenyi. Es untersucht und vergleicht, wie sich zwischen- und innerstaatliche Konflikte und die jüngste Phase von Stabilität in Ruanda auf die räumliche Stadtentwicklung über die nationale Grenze hinweg auswirken. Die Arbeit schließt mit einer kritischen Reflexion über Nutzen und Grenzen des angewendeten Methodenmix und zeigt mögliche Bereiche für weitere Forschung auf. / This dissertation combines satellite imagery analysis and field research to investigate the influence of armed conflict on urban spatial development in the eastern periphery of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and western Rwanda. This border region continues to be affected by inter- and intra-state conflict since the early 1990s. The primary study area is the city of Goma in Congo's North Kivu province. Additionally, a comparison is drawn to the adjacent city of Gisenyi in Rwanda's Western Province. The literature on urban areas in Congo and throughout Sub-Saharan Africa often refers to large primary cities. Little is known about urban development of secondary cities in conflict zones, and spatially explicit studies are rare. By combining satellite imagery analysis with semi-structured interviews and observations from field visits, this dissertation provides two complementary perspectives. The second chapter uses a time series of high-resolution Landsat images to analyze Goma's expansion between 1986 and 2015, a timeframe that includes conflict in Rwanda (1990-1994), the Congo Wars (1996-2003), and their violent aftermath. It shows how stages of urban growth relate to waves of forced displacement. The third chapter relies on very high-resolution (VHR) images for a fine-scale mapping of urbanization patterns between 2005 and 2014, and attributes them to groups of key actors. The fourth chapter extends the analysis to Goma’s Rwandan twin-city Gisenyi. It compares how inter- and intra-state conflict, and recent stability in Rwanda affect urban development across a national border. The dissertation concludes by reflecting on the utility and limitations of this methodological combination for conflict regions, highlighting areas for further research.

Past, Present, Future is an immersive and interactive art installation that seeks to put displaced Congolese and African artwork - commonly displayed in world museums - into their original cultural context. The exhibit's immersive experience sheds light on the colonial exploitation of African peoples and their lifestyles: specifically the expropriation of lived African spiritual and artistic expressions. These artifacts - sometimes stolen outright, sometimes obtained through imbalanced terms of trade, and sometimes obtained by fair bargain - often appear in exhibits as disembodied objects devoid of explanation or reinterpreted through the conceptions of the exploiters. This phenomenon has historically supported the consciousness of colonialism and now of post- and neo-colonialism, maintaining its propagation through museums, schools, and other institutions worldwide. The exhibition is composed of a virtual environment in addition to projection mapping. The visual, aural, and interactive elements engage with and challenge the viewer's culturally conditioned ways of thought regarding artwork "consumption." This thesis, building on the exhibition, examines the possibilities of employing evolving technology and coding toward the long-term task of "softly" repatriating displaced artifacts while starting a conversation about physical repatriation and providing a model that Congolese scholars and artists can use to preserve and reclaim their cultural heritage. / Master of Fine Arts / Pieces of art from Congo and much of Africa are often perceived in the Western world as exotic objects to be looked at and photographed. To the Congolese people, those objects are an essential part of their ongoing life. It goes without saying that they are central to the collective spirit, sense of the world, cultural identity, and ancestral history. Past, Present, Future is an immersive art installation that takes displaced works from Congo and other settings in Africa and restores their living context through a Congolese artist's lens. This paper examines the process by which they were extracted from their home and found their way onto Western institutions, what they were and what was lost, and how through contemporary technology-integrated creative expression, they may be made whole for the enrichment of those from whom they came, their current hosts, and people everywhere.

Denna studie beskriver utmaningar för socialt arbete mot barnarbete inom ASM-gruvarbete i Afrika. Detta är gjort genom en strukturerad litteraturöversikt där nio av 192 artiklar valdes ut, vilka tillsammans redovisar en översikt av existerande data. Uppsatsen är ämnad att tematiskt analysera omständigheter kring barnarbete i gruvor i Afrika, och hur förhållandet gällande socialt arbete mellan västerländska och afrikanska länder kan förstås avseende barn som arbetar med mineralbrytning i Afrika. Förhållandet mellan Afrika och västvärlden konkretiseras genom Demokratiska republiken Kongo (DRK) och koboltkedjan. Utgångspunkten för studien är barnkonventionen. Analysen diskuterar vad som behöver tas i beaktning för att uppnå hållbara förändringar. Studiens slutsats är att perspektiv på barnets bästa och barnarbete skiljer sig beroende på social kontext, vilket leder till utmaningar för socialt arbete mot barnarbete. Samarbetet mellan västvärlden och Afrika behöver stärkas än mer för att uppnå hållbar utveckling. / This study depicts challenges in social work against child labour in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in sub-Saharan Africa. It is made through a structured review where nine of 192 articles were selected, which together provides an overview of existing data. The paper is aimed to thematically analyze circumstances of child labour in mines in Africa, and how the relationship of social work between Western and African countries can be understood regarding children mining in Africa. The relationship between Africa and the Western world is concretized through the Democratic republic of Congo (DRC) and the cobalt chain. The approach in this article is based on the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The analysis discusses what should be considered to achieve sustainable changes. It concludes perspectives on best interest of the child and child labour differs depending on the social context, leading to challenges for social work against child labour. Greater cooperation between the western world and Africa is needed for sustainable development.

Depuis la conférence de Berlin de 1885 qui a consacré le partage de l'Afrique jusqu'à ce jour, la République Démocratique du Congo (RDC) n'a jamais retrouvé sa liberté. De l'État Indépendant du Congo, propriété privée du roi des Belges Léopold II, à l'indépendance, en passant par la colonisation belge, la RDC a toujours été confrontée à différents conflits. Pour apporter certaines solutions à ces problèmes, l'auteur analyse les principales causes des conflits et des guerres qui déchirent la République Démocratique du Congo et propose le recours à la palabre comme moyen de résolution de ces conflits. La thèse montre l'avantage à moderniser la palabre et à l'intégrer dans les institutions de la RDC pour en faire un mode de gestion politique. Aussi, elle fait ressortir des affinités électives entre la palabre et la démocratie délibérative pour établir un parallélisme entre ces deux théories. Nous nous inspirons du modèle des Kongo, habitant la région du Bas-Congo. Lors de la conférence de Berlin, le pays a été divisé artificiellement par les puissances coloniales (La France, la Grande Bretagne, le Portugal, l'Allemagne, la Belgique, etc.). Suite à ce partage, le roi Léopold II hérita le Congo un territoire 80 fois plus grand que la Belgique comme propriété privée. Durant cette période, la gestion du pays a été catastrophique. Les actes de violences, la barbarie, les exactions, les viols et les exécutions ont été commis à l'endroit des populations congolaises. Suite à cette mauvaise gestion, le Congo a été cédé à la Belgique en 1908 pour devenir une colonie belge.

Conflicts have been present in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) for many decades. The demand for the country's natural resources in combination with unstable state power and the presence of armed groups are the reasons why sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) has continued to petrify the local communities. It is used as a systematic weapon to terrorize, humiliate, and intimidate civilians and to destroy communities and families. The aim of this study is thus to investigate the conditions for reproduction of SGBV in DRC as well as its individual and structural consequences. The results of this literature study are analyzed based on the following theoretical approaches: doing gender, toxic masculinity and “the established and the outsiders”. The study, with an integrative approach, shows that there are numerous consequences both for the women and the society, including for example fistulas, gunshot wounds, death, anxiety, depression, rejection, and stigmatization. The results also show that the efficiency depends, among other things, on how culturally integrated the sexual violence is and that it is allowed to reproduce due to gender norms. The violence has unifying effects on members of the armed groups where hypermasculine characteristics are rewarded. Overall, it can be stated that the situation is complex and SGBV is a destructive element in the conflict. The violence is a consequence of prevailing structures while contributing to their maintenance. The study therefore contributes with knowledge about the driving factors behind sexual violence in war and shows the importance of gender norms in its reproduction. / I östra Demokratiska republiken Kongo (DRK) har konflikter varit närvarande i många decennier. Konflikten om landets naturresurser, i kombination med en instabil statsmakt och närvaron av beväpnade grupper är anledningen till att användandet av sexuellt våld fortsatt lamslå lokalsamhällen. Det används som ett systematiskt vapen för att terrorisera, förödmjuka och skrämma civila och för att splittra samhällen och familjer. Syftet med studien är att förstå och förklara vilka faktorer som reproducerar brukandet av sexuellt våld som ett vapen i krig samt dess individuella och strukturella konsekvenser. Detta görs genom en litteraturstudie och resultaten analyseras utifrån följande teoretiska begrepp: att göra kön, toxisk maskulinitet samt etablerade och outsiders. Litteraturstudien, som har ett integrativt förhållningssätt, visar att det finns många konsekvenser både för kvinnor och samhället: fistlar, skottskador, död, ångest, depression, exkludering och stigmatisering är några exempel. Resultaten visar också att effektiviteten bland annat beror på att det sexuella våldet är djupt rotat i kulturen i DRK och reproduceras av rådande könsnormer. Våldet har förenande effekter på medlemmar av de beväpnade grupperna där hypermaskulina egenskaper premieras. Sammantaget kan det konstateras att situationen är komplex och det sexuella våldet är ett mycket destruktivt inslag i konflikten. Våldet är en konsekvens av rådande strukturer samtidigt som det bidrar till upprätthållandet av dem. Studien bidrar därför med kunskap om de drivande faktorerna bakom sexuellt våld i krig samt visar på könsnormers betydelse för reproduktionen av det.

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1 Abstract A Group of revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro has been struggling to overthrow the Cuban President Fulgencio Batista since the half of 1950s. After they succeeded on New Year's Eve 1959 the Revolutionary Cuban Government changed strategy in all aspects of the state administration. One of the most visible change happened in the sector of foreign policy. Cuba began to act not only as a sovereign country in relation to the neighbouring states which led to the conflict with the United States, but also began to actively export her model of revolution. The main initiators in this turn were Ernesto "Che" Guevara and Fidel Castro. The first region where Havana attempted to export the revolution was Latin America. Nevertheless, all attempts failed during 1960s. At the same time, the process of decolonisation in Africa visited by Guevara in the middle of 1959 was in progress. In Egypt, he established his first contacts with revolutionary leaders and subsequently informed Havana about the situation. The socialist character of a number of revolutionary movements was close to Cubans, so they started to widen relationship with them. First aid to Africa was sent by Cuban government at the end of 1961 to Algeria which fought for independence on France since 1954. Strengthening of relations between Havana and...

This master's thesis deals with the potential impact of natural resources on intrastate conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa. The major aim is to investigate the general validity of the resource curse theory and of Ross's hypothesis about selling booty futures in civil wars. The presumed negative influence of both theories is tested on the cases of recent intrastate conflicts in the region, namely in Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of Congo, Liberia and Sierra Leone. However, the main contribution of the thesis is probably the analysis of another case, namely Botswana, which, unlike other countries, appears to be out of the generally valid standards of the resource curse theory, as the only one experiencing long-term positive economic growth. The partial aim of the thesis is also to analyze the Botswana's success in managing natural resources and then to suggest some possible recommendations for other states in the region. The thesis is written in the qualitative approach, particularly in the form of thorough work with academic literature. The research method is the Method of Difference by John Stuart Mill, in its revised form of the Most Similar Systems Design.

This thesis argues that King Leopold II, in his exploitation of the Congo, dealt the Congo a future of political, ethnic, and economic destabilization. At one time consisting of unified and advanced kingdoms, the Congo turned to one completely beleaguered by poverty and political oppression. Leopold acquired the Congo through unethical means and thus took the people's chances away at self-rule. He provided for no education or vocational training, which would stunt future Congolese leaders from making sound economic and political policies. Leopold also exploited the Congo with the help of concession companies, both of which used forced labor to extract valuable resources. Millions of Congolese died and the Congo itself became indebted through Belgian loans that were given with no assurance they could ever truly be paid back due to the crippled economy of the Congo. With the Congo now in crippling debt, the current president, Joseph Kabila, has little incentive to invest in reforms or public infrastructure, which stunts economic growth.1 For over a century the Congo has been ruled by exploitative and authoritarian regimes due to Leopold's initial acquisition. The colonization from Leopold lasted from 1885-1908, and then he sold it to his home country of Belgium who ruled the Congo from 1908 to 1960. Belgium helped prop up a dictator named Joseph Mobutu or Mobutu Sese Seko who ruled from 1965 to 1997. Afterwards he was overthrown by the Kabila family who has continued the exploitative rule and has made no significant efforts at democratization or reforms. Thus the ethnic conflicts, political oppression and economic woes that the Congo is facing today are inevitably linked to its Leopoldian past.

Text in Afrikaans / In hierdie verhandeling word die tekste van onderskeidelik Mireille Cottenje (Dagboek van Carla - 1968), Daisy Ver Boven (Mayana - I974 ), Henriette Claessens (Afscheid van Rumangabo - 1983) en Lieve Joris (Terug naar Kongo - 1987) bespreek as verteenwoordigend van die koloniale literatuur deur die vroulike outeur. Die doel is om vas te stel hoe daar deur die vroue outeur in die Vlaamse letterkunde aan die Afrika-ervaring gestalte gegee is. Eerstens word 'n oorsig van die begrip koloniale literatuur gegee en daama word literer-histories op die Vlaamse Afrika-literatuur vanaf die prekoloniale- tot die postkoloniale era gefokus. Nadat 'n analise van die tekste gedoen is om die individuele perspektiewe te evalueer, blyk dit dat die vroue outeurs in 'n groot mate gemeenskaplike visies in hul siening van die koloniale era openbaar. 'n Beeld van die koloniale Kongo soos dit in die ervaringswereld van die vroue outeurs bly voortleefhet, kan so verkry word / In this thesis, the texts of Mireille Cottenje (Dagboek van Carla - 1968), Daisy Ver Boven (Mayana - 1974), Henriette Claessens (Afscheid van Rumangabo - 1983) and Lieve Joris (Terug naar Kongo - 1987) were respectively studied as representative of the colonial literature written by female authors. The aim is to establish how stature is given in the literature to the Africa experience by the female author. In the first instance the concept colonial literature is discussed followed by a historical review of the Flemish African literature from the pre-colonial to the postcolonial era. After an analysis has been completed to evaluate the individual perspectives of the different authors, it appears that the female authors reveal shared perspectives in their views on the colonial era. Through knowledge of the work of these authors, an image of the colonial Congo can be found, as it lives on in the world of the female literator / Afrikaans & Theory of Literature / M.A. (Afrikaans)