Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2014-09-24T14:56:36Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Cysneiros, Maria Auxiliadora de Paula Carneiro.pdf: 1396665 bytes, checksum: f26660692713226fc47ed6704e9d53a9 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Cláudia Bueno (claudiamoura18@gmail.com) on 2014-09-28T02:03:10Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Cysneiros, Maria Auxiliadora de Paula Carneiro.pdf: 1396665 bytes, checksum: f26660692713226fc47ed6704e9d53a9 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-09-28T02:03:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Cysneiros, Maria Auxiliadora de Paula Carneiro.pdf: 1396665 bytes, checksum: f26660692713226fc47ed6704e9d53a9 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-10-16 / Endocervical and Endometrial Adenocarcinomas are uterine neoplasms with different biological behaviors and different treatments, being all the therapeutic plan based on the origin site of these tumors. To differentiate these two neoplasms, many times the immunohistochemical study is used as an ancillary tool to assist and complement histopathological examination. Previous studies have investigated the value of various markers in the distinction of these neoplasms, with results varying and sometimes conflicting. In this study the impact of the MCM2, bcl2 and villin markers in the differential diagnosis of endocervical and endometrial adenocarcinomas, associated or not to a traditional markers panel formed by CEA, vimentin, RE, RP and p16, was evaluated. Material and methods: A tissue microarray (TMA) was constructed using paraffin-embedded, formalin-fixed tissues from 104 hysterectomy specimens and conizations. Out of the 104, 51 samples were represented by unequivocal cases of adenocarcinomas of the endocervice and 53 represented unequivocal cases of endometrial adenocarcinomas. The sections of tissue microarray block were immunostained with the eight antibodies in study and to the antigen-antibody reaction preview it was used the polymer detection system. Scoring of immunostaining was interpreted using the German semi quantitative scoring system in considering the staining intensity and area extent of marker expression. The final Immunoreactive score was determined by multiplying the positive intensity and the positive area extent scores. The threshold for differentiating between final positive and negative immunostaining was set at 4 for interpretation (0-3 = negative; 4-12 = positive). Results: The univariate analysis showed that out of the eight markers, seven (CEA, vimentin, RE, RP, p16, MCM2 and bcl2) showed good performance in the distinction between the endocervical and endometrial origin. The multivariate analysis showed that CEA, p16 and MCM2 were the strongest predictors of site of origin. In the evaluation of six panels built by various combinations of immunomarkers , the panel with the lowest accuracy was that represented by MCM2, bcl2 and villin. The villin did not show any statistically significant difference in the differential diagnosis of these adenocarcinomas. Despite the MCM2 and bcl2 have revealed significant differences of frequency between the two sites of origin, they did not demonstrate additional benefit when added to a traditional panel. Conclusion: According to our study, the inclusion of MCM2, bcl2 and villin in the immunohistochemical assessment of uterine adenocarcinomas, added no supplementary value in the differentiation of these two neoplasms. / Adenocarcinomas endocervicais e endometriais são neoplasias uterinas com comportamentos biológicos e tratamentos distintos, sendo todo o plano terapêutico baseado no sítio de origem desses tumores. Para diferenciação dessas duas neoplasias, muitas vezes utiliza-se o estudo imuno-histoquímico como ferramenta auxiliar e complementar ao exame histopatológico. Prévios estudos têm investigado o valor de diferentes marcadores na distinção dessas neoplasias, com resultados variáveis e, por vezes, conflitantes. Neste estudo foi avaliado o desempenho dos marcadores MCM2, bcl2 e vilina no diagnóstico diferencial desses adenocarcinomas, associados ou não a um painel de marcadores tradicionais formados por CEA, vimentina, RE, RP e p16. Material e métodos: Um microarranjo de tecido (TMA) foi construído usando tecidos fixados em formol e embebidos em parafina, a partir de 104 amostras provenientes de histerectomias e conizações. Das 104 amostras, 51 eram representadas por casos inequívocos de adenocarcinomas de endocérvice e 53 representavam casos inequívocos de adenocarcinomas de endométrio. As secções do bloco de TMA foram imunomarcadas com os oito anticorpos em estudo e para vizualização da reação antígeno-anticorpo foi utilizado o sistema de detecção com polímeros. A marcação imuno-histoquímica foi graduada de acordo com o sistema semi-quantitativo alemão, levando-se em consideração a intensidade de marcação e a extensão de células marcadas. O score de imunorreatividade final foi determinado pela multiplicação da intensidade pela extensão de marcação. Um limite de corte de 4 foi determinado para diferenciação entre um resultado final positivo ou negativo (0- 3= negativo; 4- 12= positivo). Resultados: Análise univariada mostrou que dos oito marcadores avaliados, sete (CEA, vimentina, RE, RP, p16, MCM2 e bcl2) apresentaram bom desempenho na distinção entre origens endocervical e endometrial da neoplasia. Análise multivariada mostrou que CEA, p16 e MCM2 foram os mais fortes preditores do sítio anatômico. Na avaliação dos seis painéis construídos por combinações variadas desses marcadores, o painel com menor acurácia diagnóstica foi o representado por MCM2, bcl2 e vilina. A vilina não apresentou nenhuma diferença estatisticamente significativa no diagnóstico diferencial desses adenocarcinomas. Apesar do MCM2 e bcl2 terem revelado diferenças significativas de frequência entre os dois sítios de origem, eles não demonstraram valor suplementar quando adicionados a um painel tradicional. Conclusão: De acordo com este estudo, a inclusão de MCM2, bcl2 e vilina em um painel tradicional de 5 marcadores (CEA, vimentina, RE, RP, p16), não agregou nenhum benefício adicional na distinção imuno-histoquímica do sítio de origem desses adenocarcinomas uterinos.

The essential cell cycle kinase Dbf4/Cdc7 (DDK) triggers DNA replication through phosphorylation of the Mcm2-7 helicase at replication origins. Prior work has implicated various Mcm2-7 subunits as targets of DDK, however it is not well understood which specific subunits mediate the docking of the DDK complex. Through yeast two-hybrid and co-immunoprecipitation analyses, we found that Dbf4 and Cdc7 interact with distinct subunits of the Mcm2-7 helicase complex. Dbf4 showed the strongest interaction with Mcm2 while Cdc7 associated with Mcm4 and Mcm5. Dissection of the N-terminal region of Mcm2 revealed two regions that mediate the interaction with Dbf4, whereas in Mcm4, a region near the N-terminus has been previously identified by another group as the DDK docking domain. Mutant forms of Mcm2 (Mcm2ΔDDD) or Mcm4 (Mcm4ΔDDD) lacking the DDK docking domain were expressed in cells and resulted in modest growth and replication defects. Combining the two mutations resulted in synthetic lethality, suggesting a redundant mechanism of Mcm2 and Mcm4 in targeting the DDK complex to Mcm rings. Furthermore, growth inhibition could be induced in a Mcm4ΔDDD background by overexpressing Mcm2 to titrate Dbf4 from Mcm rings. These growth defects were exacerbated in the presence of genotoxic agents such as hydroxyurea and methyl methanesulfonate, suggesting that DDK-Mcm interactions may play a role in stabilizing replication forks under S-phase checkpoint conditions. Regions of Cdc7 were examined for their interaction with Mcm4 and Dbf4. Results have shown that the N-terminal amino acid region 55-124 and the C-terminal region 453-507 of Cdc7 are likely target regions for Dbf4-binding. Several conserved residues were identified within the N-terminal 55-124 Cdc7 region that interface with conserved residues within motif-C of Dbf4. Conserved residues were identified within the DDD domain of Mcm2 and mutating these residues resulted in a decreased interaction with Dbf4. Lastly, bioinformatics analysis has revealed potential conserved residues within the Mcm4DDD region, which may play a role in binding to Cdc7. This research is significant because these factors, which are conserved in all eukaryotes studied to date, should give further insight as to how DNA replication is triggered and how it is affected when cells are exposed to DNA damaging or replication compromising agents. This research also has implications in cancer genetics, as prior studies have shown elevated DDK and Mcm protein levels in tumour cell lines and melanomas, with Cdc7 showing great promise as a cancer therapeutic target. Such knowledge will further enhance our understanding of the DNA replication process and the roles of cell cycle proteins involved, under both normal and checkpoint conditions.

Η διατήρηση της γονιδιωματικής σταθερότητας προϋποθέτει τη σωστή διαδοχή των φάσεων του κυτταρικού κύκλου. Σημαντικό μηχανισμό ελέγχου αποτελεί η αδειοδότηση της αντιγραφής του DNA, η οποία εξασφαλίζει την πλήρη αντιγραφή του γονιδιώματος μία μόνο φορά κατά τη διάρκεια κάθε κυτταρικού κύκλου. Η διαδικασία αυτή λαμβάνει χώρα στο τέλος της μίτωσης και κατά τη φάση G1 και περιλαμβάνει τη συγκρότηση των προ-αντιγραφικών συμπλόκων στις αφετηρίες της αντιγραφής του DNA. Τα σύμπλοκα αυτά απαρτίζονται από τις πρωτεΐνες MCM2-7 οι οποίες έχουν ενεργότητα ελικάσης. Σημαντικό παράγοντα αδειοδότησης αποτελεί η πρωτεΐνη Cdt1, η οποία συσσωρεύεται κατά τη φάση G1 του κυτταρικού κύκλου και απαιτείται για τη στρατολόγηση των ελικασών MCM2-7 στις αφετηρίες της αντιγραφής του DNA. Στα μετάζωα, η πρωτεΐνη Geminin, η οποία εκφράζεται κατά τις φάσεις S, G2 και Μ, αποτελεί αναστολέα του παράγοντα Cdt1 και προσδένεται σε αυτόν παρεμποδίζοντας την αδειοδότηση της αντιγραφής. Αρκετές μελέτες έχουν καταδείξει ότι η εκτοπική υπερέκφραση της πρωτεΐνης Cdt1 επάγει την επανέναρξη της αντιγραφής του DNA και τον υπερδιπλασιασμό του γονιδιώματος συμβάλλοντας στην ογκογένεση. Στο πρώτο μέρος της παρούσας εργασίας μελετήθηκε η έκφραση του παράγοντα Cdt1 σε κλινικά δείγματα όγκων μαστού. Από την ανάλυση διαπιστώθηκε ότι η πρωτεΐνη Cdt1 υπερεκφράζεται στατιστικώς σημαντικά στην περιοχή του όγκου σε σύγκριση με τον παρακείμενο μη νεοπλασματικό ιστό, γεγονός που καταδεικνύει την πιθανή αξία του παράγοντα ως διαγνωστικού βιοδείκτη. Επιπλέον, η υπερέκφραση του συγκεκριμένου παράγοντα δείχθηκε ότι συσχετίζεται αντίστροφα με την παρουσία ή μη οιστρογονικών (ER) και προγεστερονικών υποδοχέων (PR). Επίσης, διαπιστώθηκε στατιστικώς σημαντική συσχέτιση μεταξύ της έκφρασης του παράγοντα Cdt1 και της έκφρασης του δείκτη πολλαπλασιασμού Ki67 καθώς και του υποδοχέα HER2/neu. Οι παρατηρήσεις αυτές υποδηλώνουν ότι ο παράγοντας Cdt1 ενδέχεται να αποτελεί δείκτη άσχημης πρόγνωσης στον όγκο μαστού. Επιπλέον η ανάλυση κατέδειξε σημαντική υπερέκφραση της πρωτεΐνης Cdt1 σε όγκους θετικούς για τον υποδοχέα HER2/neu σε σύγκριση με τα περιστατικά που δεν εξέφραζαν τον υποδοχέα. Δεδομένου ότι στο 95% των περιπτώσεων όγκων μαστού όπου διαπιστώνεται υπερέκφραση του υποδοχέα HER2/neu, αυτή οφείλεται σε ενίσχυση του αντίστοιχου γονιδίου, διερευνήθηκε κατά πόσο η γονιδιακή ενίσχυση θα μπορούσε να αποτελεί λειτουργική επίπτωση της ογκογόνου δράσης του παράγοντα Cdt1 στον όγκο μαστού. Η υπερέκφραση των παραγόντων αδειοδότησης Cdt1 και Cdc6 στις καρκινικές κυτταρικές σειρές HeLa και MCF7 είχε ως αποτέλεσμα την ανάπτυξη ανθεκτικών αποικιών στη μεθοτρεξάτη. Έχει δειχθεί ότι η ανθεκτικότητα στο φάρμακο αυτό οφείλεται κατά κύριο λόγο στη γονιδιακή ενίσχυση του ενζύμου διυδροφολική αναγωγάση (DHFR). Συνεπώς, είναι πιθανό η υπερέκφραση του παράγοντα Cdt1 να συμβάλλει στη δημιουργία γονιδιακής ενίσχυσης. Στο δεύτερο μέρος της εργασίας μελετήθηκε η κινητική συμπεριφορά των πρωτεϊνών MCM2-7 με μεθόδους λειτουργικής μικροσκοπίας. Αρχικά αναπτύχθηκε ένα σύστημα μελέτης το οποίο βασίζεται στις μεθόδους FRAP και FLIP και επιτρέπει τη μελέτη της δυναμικής συμπεριφοράς των πρωτεϊνών MCM και κατ’ επέκταση τη χωροχρονική ποσοτική εκτίμηση της αδειοδότησης της αντιγραφής του DNA σε ζωντανά ανθρώπινα κύτταρα. Η ανάλυση της κινητικής των πρωτεϊνών MCM2 και MCM4 7. Περίληψη - Abstract - 212 - αποκάλυψε σημαντική διαφορά σε σύγκριση με την αντίστοιχη του παράγοντα Cdt1, καθώς οι πρωτεΐνες MCM παρουσιάζουν πιο σταθερή αλληλεπίδραση με τη χρωματίνη. Επίσης, διαπιστώθηκε σταδιακή πρόσδεση των πρωτεϊνών MCM στη χρωματίνη με την πρόοδο της φάσης G1, περαιτέρω πρόσδεση μορίων MCM στο τέλος της φάσης αυτής και σταδιακή αποδέσμευση αυτών από τη χρωματίνη καθώς εξελίσσεται η φάση S. Πειράματα FLIP αποκάλυψαν ότι η αλληλεπίδραση των πρωτεϊνών MCM με τη χρωματίνη λαμβάνει χώρα σε συγκεκριμένες υποπυρηνικές περιοχές. Οι περιοχές αυτές αυξάνονται σε αριθμό με την πρόοδο της φάσης G1 και ελαττώνονται με την εξέλιξη της φάσης S. Η παρατήρηση των υποπεριοχών αυτών κατά τη φάση S κατέδειξε ότι δεν συμπίπτουν με τις υποδομές της πρωτεΐνης PCNA, γεγονός που υποδεικνύει ότι οι πρωτεΐνες MCM2-7 δεν εντοπίζονται στις περιοχές σύνθεσης του DNA. Επιπλέον, διερευνήθηκε η πιθανή επίδραση της πρωτεΐνης Geminin στην κινητική συμπεριφορά των πρωτεϊνών MCM. Πειράματα αποσιώπησης της έκφρασης της πρωτεΐνης Geminin είχαν ως αποτέλεσμα τη μείωση του δεσμευμένου κλάσματος των πρωτεϊνών MCM2 και MCM4 κατά τη διάρκεια της φάσης G1, καθώς και την αποσταθεροποίηση των ήδη δεσμευμένων μορίων στο τέλος της φάσης αυτής. Επίσης, η απουσία της πρωτεΐνης Geminin είχε ως αποτέλεσμα την αδυναμία των κυττάρων να εισέλθουν στη φάση S. Συμπερασματικά, στο πρώτο μέρος της παρούσας εργασίας καταδείχθηκε η πιθανή αξία του παράγοντα Cdt1 ως διαγνωστικού και προγνωστικού βιοδείκτη στον όγκο μαστού. Επιπλέον, διαπιστώθηκε ότι η υπερέκφραση του παράγοντα Cdt1 πιθανώς συμβάλλει στη δημιουργία γονιδιακής ενίσχυσης, παρατήρηση που προτείνει ένα νέο μηχανισμό ογκογόνου δράσης του παράγοντα αυτού. Στο δεύτερο μέρος της εργασίας διαπιστώθηκε ότι η κινητική των πρωτεϊνών MCM2 και MCM4 αλλάζει κατά τη διάρκεια των φάσεων G1 και S. Επίσης, η πρωτεΐνη Geminin δείχθηκε ότι απαιτείται για την πρόσδεση των πρωτεϊνών MCM στη χρωματίνη και για την πρόοδο των κυττάρων από τη φάση G1 στη φάση S, παρατήρηση που καταδεικνύει ένα πιθανό θετικό ρόλο της πρωτεΐνης Geminin στην αντιγραφή του DNA. / Tight regulation of the DNA replication initiation is crucial for the maintenance of genomic integrity. Faithful replication in time and space is ensured by a process called DNA licensing, which takes place in late mitosis and during G1 phase. Licensing involves the stepwise assembly of pre-replicative complexes at origins of replication. These complexes render DNA origins competent to initiate replication. Cdt1 is an essential regulator of DNA licensing that accumulates only in G1 phase of the cell cycle and is required for the recruitment of MCM2-7 helicases onto replication origins. In metazoans, Cdt1 is negatively regulated by a protein called Geminin, which is expressed from S to M phases. Geminin binds to Cdt1 preventing replication licensing. Several lines of evidence suggest that Cdt1 overexpression in cell lines and animals drives rereplication and contributes to genomic instability. In the first part of this thesis, Cdt1 expression levels were analyzed in breast cancer specimens. Cdt1 protein expression was correlated to clinicopathological parameters of the disease, proliferation index and HER2/neu status. Analysis revealed that Cdt1 was statistically significantly overexpressed in the invasive tumor areas compared to adjacent non-neoplastic tissue. Moreover, a significant inverse correlation was established between Cdt1 expression levels and oestrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) status. A significant positive correlation of Cdt1 expression with the proliferation index Ki67 was demonstrated. These observations imply that Cdt1 may constitute a useful prognostic and diagnostic biomarker for breast cancer. Additionally, Cdt1 expression levels were significantly higher in HER2/neu score 3+ tumors (known to show HER2/neu gene amplification by FISH in 95% of cases) compared to HER2/neu negative tumors (known to show HER2/neu gene amplification by FISH in only 0-7% of cases). This observation prompted us to investigate whether gene amplification is a direct consequence of Cdt1 overexperssion. To this end, Cdt1 and Cdc6 were overexpressed in HeLa and MCF7 cell lines. The overexperssion of these licensing factors resulted in the generation of methotrexate resistance colonies. Given that the major cause of resistance to methotrexate is the increased expression levels of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) due to gene amplification, it is probable that Cdt1 overexpression may lead to this type of genomic instability. In the second part of this thesis, live cell imaging techniques were used to assess dynamics of licensing within the cell nucleus. In particular, we established an in vivo licensing assay, which is based on FRAP and FLIP techniques and permits the investigation of the kinetics of MCM helicases within live human cells. FRAP analysis of GFP-MCM2 and GFP-MCM4 kinetics revealed that MCMs maintain stable association with chromatin during G1 phase in contrast to Cdt1, which exhibits transient interaction with chromatin throughout G1 phase. Moreover it was shown that MCMs are gradually bound to chromatin as G1 phase progresses, being maximally bound in late G1, before the onset of DNA replication and are displaced from chromatin during the course of S phase. Fluorescence-Loss-In-Photobleaching (FLIP) experiments indicated that MCM-chromatin association is not homogenous throughout the nucleus but shows subnuclear concentrations which differ as cells progress through G1 and are adjacent to sites of ongoing DNA synthesis in S phase cells. Moreover, it was shown that Geminin is required for MCM proteins being stably bound to chromatin as well as for proper progression of 7. Περίληψη - Abstract - 214 - cells from G1 to S phase. Taken together our results suggest additional levels of regulation of MCM chromatin association during G1 and S phases. Furthermore, Geminin appears to have a positive regulatory role in DNA replication.

Les protéines de la famille des AAA+ ATPases sont présentes dans de nombreux complexes moléculaires. Ces protéines sont capables de s’assembler en anneaux héxamériques (homomères ou hétéromères) pour former des moteurs moléculaires. Au cours de ma thèse, je me suis particulièrement intéressé à deux complexes macromoléculaires à AAA+ ATPases présentant un grand intérêt thérapeutique contre différents cancers : la particule régulatrice du protéasome 26S et l’hélicase du réplisome, Mcm2-7. Le protéasome 26S est la principale machinerie moléculaire impliquée dans la dégradation régulée des protéines poly-ubiquitinées tandis que l’hélicase mcm 2-7 est responsable du désappariement des brins de l’ADN chromosomique lors de la réplication de l’ADN. Ces deux complexes comprennent un anneau hétérohéxamérique de sous-unités AAA+ ATPases appelé Rpt1 à Rpt6 dans le cas du protéasome 26S et Mcm2 à Mcm7 dans le cas de l’hélicase mcm2-7. J’ai focalisé mes travaux sur l’étude du rôle du chaperon Hsm3/S5b dans l’assemblage du protéasome 26S d’une part, et le rôle spécifique de la sous-unité Mcm2 dans le transfert intergénérationnel des histones d’autre part. Le chaperon Hsm3/S5b se lie avec la sous-unité Rpt1. L’étude des complexes de levure Hsm3-Rpt1 et humain S5b-Rpt1 par cristallographie aux rayons X m’a permis de proposer que le chaperon d’Hsm3/S5b pourrait jouer un rôle de médiateur entre les sous-unités Rpt1, Rpt2 et Rpn1 lors de l’assemblage de la particule régulatrice. De plus, ce chaperon pourrait jouer également un rôle d’inhibiteur pour l’assemblage entre la particule régulatrice 19S et la particule cœur 20S du protéasome 26S. Certaines sous-unités AAA+ ATPase, telles que celles du réplisome, possèdent des domaines additionnels, leur conférant un rôle secondaire spécifique et indépendant de leur rôle principal de moteur moléculaire. C’est le cas de Mcm2, qui lie les histones H3-H4 par son domaine N-terminal. J’ai mis en évidence et caractériser cette interaction par différentes techniques biophysiques, en particulier la cristallographie aux rayons X, la RMN et le SEC-MALS. Ces résultats m’ont permis de proposer un modèle pour le transfert intergénérationnel des histones dans lequel Mcm2 joue un rôle crucial de chaperon moléculaire des histones directement intégré dans la machinerie de réplication. / AAA+ ATPases are involved in numerous molecular complexes. These proteins form homomeric or heteromeric hexamers and constitute molecular motors. During my Ph. D., I focused my work on two macromolecular complexes composed of AAA+ ATPases: the 26S proteasome regulatory particle and the Mcm2-7 helicase of the replisome. These complexes are implicated in the development of cancers and constitute interesting therapeutic targets. The 26S proteasome is the main machinery responsible for the regulated degradation of poly-ubiquitinated proteins and the helicase Mcm2-7 is responsible for the unwinding of the DNA during replication. These two complexes are composed of a heterohexameric ring of six AAA+ ATPases called Rpt1 to 6 for the 26S proteasome regulatory particle and Mcm2 to 7 for the replisome. I have studied the role of Hsm3/S5b in the assembly mechanism of the proteasome and the specific role of the subunit Mcm2 in the intergenerational transfer of the epigenetic information. X-ray structures of the complexes Hsm3-Rpt1 and S5b-Rpt1 allowed us to elucidate the dual functions of the assembly chaperone Hsm3/S5b which mediates the assembly of the subcomplex Rpt1-Rpt2-Rpn1 during the assembly of the regulatory particle. In addition, hsm3/S5b inhibits the association of a premature regulatory particle onto the core particle and protects the HbYX motif of Rpt1. Other AAA+ ATPases, like the replisome subunits, possess additional domains which confer specific roles. I also studied the interaction between the N-terminal domain of Mcm2 and the tetrameric form of histones H3-H4 by several methods like X-ray crystallography, NMR and SEC-MALS. I propose a model of the intergenerational transfer of histones H3-H4 in which Mcm2 plays a crucial role of molecular histones chaperone directly integrated in the replication machinery.

A descoberta das células tronco adultas tornou possível a sua aplicação clínica em protocolos de medicina regenerativa e de engenharia de tecidos para a reparação de órgãos danificados ou pouco funcionais. Neste sentido, são conhecidas muitas fontes diferentes de células tronco adultas, entre elas o tecido epitelial, o tecido muscular e a medula óssea. Recentemente, o tecido adiposo adulto foi reconhecido como uma fonte alternativa, acessível e rica em células tronco mesenquimais (MSCs), também denominadas de células tronco derivadas do tecido adiposo (hADSCs). As hADSCs são as células tronco adultas que apresentam a maior plasticidade, e são facilmente isoladas pela característica de aderência a substratos plásticos. Sob condições específicas de cultivo, as hADSCs podem diferenciar-se em células precursoras osteoblásticas. Dentre as proteínas necessárias para a diferenciação das hADSCs, o papel do complexo minichromosome maintenance (MCM) não é muito bem conhecido. A proteína MCM2 é parte do complexo MCM, fazendo parte do complexo pré-replicativo (pre-RC). Em células proliferativas, o gene MCM2 apresenta alta expressão, sendo que o seu produto gênico está relacionado com os mecanismos de reparação de DNA. Sendo assim, analisamos as mudanças na expressão do gene MCM2 durante a osteodiferenciação das hADSCs em diferentes meios de cultura, contendo BMP-4 ou OM. Os genes relacionados com a osteodiferenciação, como osteocalcina (OC), osteopontina (OP) e fosfatase alcalina (ALP) foram analisados por RT-PCR, por PCR em tempo real e citoquímica. Os dados obtidos pelas técnicas citoquímicas e de biologia molecular indicaram uma diminuição da expressão do gene MCM2 durante a osteodiferenciação, que pode estar relacionada com danos ao DNA ou senescência nas hADSCs. / The discovery of adult stem cells is a promise field in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. There are many sources of adult stem cells among which of whom are the skin, muscle and bone marrow. Currently, the adipose tissue has been an alternative source of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), termed human adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs). The MSCs are the most plastic adult stem cells known until now and are easily isolated by adherence in plastic substrates. Under specifics conditions of culture hADSCs can be differentiated in osteoblast cell precursors. Among proteins needed for hADSCs differentiation, the roles of minichromosome maintenance (MCM) complex remains poorly understood. The protein complex MCM2-7 is part of DNA pre-replicative complex (pre-RC), being abundant in proliferating cells and involved in DNA repair mechanisms. In this sense, the Mcm2 is essential for the activity of the MCM complex. Thus, we analysed MCM2 gene expression changes during osteoinduction by culturing hADSCs in different media containing BMP-4 or in osteogenic medium. Genes related to osteodifferentiation, like osteocalcin (OC), osteopontin (OP) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were analysed by molecular and cytochemistry approaches during osteodifferentiation. Interestingly, we observed a decrease in the MCM2 gene level osteoinduction of hADSCs in osteogenic medium, which could be related to an increase in genome damage and senescence in hADSCs.

A descoberta das células tronco adultas tornou possível a sua aplicação clínica em protocolos de medicina regenerativa e de engenharia de tecidos para a reparação de órgãos danificados ou pouco funcionais. Neste sentido, são conhecidas muitas fontes diferentes de células tronco adultas, entre elas o tecido epitelial, o tecido muscular e a medula óssea. Recentemente, o tecido adiposo adulto foi reconhecido como uma fonte alternativa, acessível e rica em células tronco mesenquimais (MSCs), também denominadas de células tronco derivadas do tecido adiposo (hADSCs). As hADSCs são as células tronco adultas que apresentam a maior plasticidade, e são facilmente isoladas pela característica de aderência a substratos plásticos. Sob condições específicas de cultivo, as hADSCs podem diferenciar-se em células precursoras osteoblásticas. Dentre as proteínas necessárias para a diferenciação das hADSCs, o papel do complexo minichromosome maintenance (MCM) não é muito bem conhecido. A proteína MCM2 é parte do complexo MCM, fazendo parte do complexo pré-replicativo (pre-RC). Em células proliferativas, o gene MCM2 apresenta alta expressão, sendo que o seu produto gênico está relacionado com os mecanismos de reparação de DNA. Sendo assim, analisamos as mudanças na expressão do gene MCM2 durante a osteodiferenciação das hADSCs em diferentes meios de cultura, contendo BMP-4 ou OM. Os genes relacionados com a osteodiferenciação, como osteocalcina (OC), osteopontina (OP) e fosfatase alcalina (ALP) foram analisados por RT-PCR, por PCR em tempo real e citoquímica. Os dados obtidos pelas técnicas citoquímicas e de biologia molecular indicaram uma diminuição da expressão do gene MCM2 durante a osteodiferenciação, que pode estar relacionada com danos ao DNA ou senescência nas hADSCs. / The discovery of adult stem cells is a promise field in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. There are many sources of adult stem cells among which of whom are the skin, muscle and bone marrow. Currently, the adipose tissue has been an alternative source of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), termed human adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs). The MSCs are the most plastic adult stem cells known until now and are easily isolated by adherence in plastic substrates. Under specifics conditions of culture hADSCs can be differentiated in osteoblast cell precursors. Among proteins needed for hADSCs differentiation, the roles of minichromosome maintenance (MCM) complex remains poorly understood. The protein complex MCM2-7 is part of DNA pre-replicative complex (pre-RC), being abundant in proliferating cells and involved in DNA repair mechanisms. In this sense, the Mcm2 is essential for the activity of the MCM complex. Thus, we analysed MCM2 gene expression changes during osteoinduction by culturing hADSCs in different media containing BMP-4 or in osteogenic medium. Genes related to osteodifferentiation, like osteocalcin (OC), osteopontin (OP) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were analysed by molecular and cytochemistry approaches during osteodifferentiation. Interestingly, we observed a decrease in the MCM2 gene level osteoinduction of hADSCs in osteogenic medium, which could be related to an increase in genome damage and senescence in hADSCs.

A descoberta das células tronco adultas tornou possível a sua aplicação clínica em protocolos de medicina regenerativa e de engenharia de tecidos para a reparação de órgãos danificados ou pouco funcionais. Neste sentido, são conhecidas muitas fontes diferentes de células tronco adultas, entre elas o tecido epitelial, o tecido muscular e a medula óssea. Recentemente, o tecido adiposo adulto foi reconhecido como uma fonte alternativa, acessível e rica em células tronco mesenquimais (MSCs), também denominadas de células tronco derivadas do tecido adiposo (hADSCs). As hADSCs são as células tronco adultas que apresentam a maior plasticidade, e são facilmente isoladas pela característica de aderência a substratos plásticos. Sob condições específicas de cultivo, as hADSCs podem diferenciar-se em células precursoras osteoblásticas. Dentre as proteínas necessárias para a diferenciação das hADSCs, o papel do complexo minichromosome maintenance (MCM) não é muito bem conhecido. A proteína MCM2 é parte do complexo MCM, fazendo parte do complexo pré-replicativo (pre-RC). Em células proliferativas, o gene MCM2 apresenta alta expressão, sendo que o seu produto gênico está relacionado com os mecanismos de reparação de DNA. Sendo assim, analisamos as mudanças na expressão do gene MCM2 durante a osteodiferenciação das hADSCs em diferentes meios de cultura, contendo BMP-4 ou OM. Os genes relacionados com a osteodiferenciação, como osteocalcina (OC), osteopontina (OP) e fosfatase alcalina (ALP) foram analisados por RT-PCR, por PCR em tempo real e citoquímica. Os dados obtidos pelas técnicas citoquímicas e de biologia molecular indicaram uma diminuição da expressão do gene MCM2 durante a osteodiferenciação, que pode estar relacionada com danos ao DNA ou senescência nas hADSCs. / The discovery of adult stem cells is a promise field in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. There are many sources of adult stem cells among which of whom are the skin, muscle and bone marrow. Currently, the adipose tissue has been an alternative source of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), termed human adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs). The MSCs are the most plastic adult stem cells known until now and are easily isolated by adherence in plastic substrates. Under specifics conditions of culture hADSCs can be differentiated in osteoblast cell precursors. Among proteins needed for hADSCs differentiation, the roles of minichromosome maintenance (MCM) complex remains poorly understood. The protein complex MCM2-7 is part of DNA pre-replicative complex (pre-RC), being abundant in proliferating cells and involved in DNA repair mechanisms. In this sense, the Mcm2 is essential for the activity of the MCM complex. Thus, we analysed MCM2 gene expression changes during osteoinduction by culturing hADSCs in different media containing BMP-4 or in osteogenic medium. Genes related to osteodifferentiation, like osteocalcin (OC), osteopontin (OP) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were analysed by molecular and cytochemistry approaches during osteodifferentiation. Interestingly, we observed a decrease in the MCM2 gene level osteoinduction of hADSCs in osteogenic medium, which could be related to an increase in genome damage and senescence in hADSCs.

The MCM helicase plays an important role in eukaryotic DNA replication, unwinding double stranded DNA ahead of the replication fork. MCM is a hetero-hexamer consisting of the six related proteins, Mcm2-Mcm7. The distantly related MCM-binding protein (MCM-BP) was first identified in a screen for proteins interacting with MCM2-7 in human cells and was found to specifically interact with Mcm3-7 but not Mcm2. It is conserved in most eukaryotes and seems to play an important role in DNA replication but its exact function is not clear yet. This study contributes to the understanding of the fission yeast homologue of MCM-BP, named Mcb1, but also of MCM-BP in general. Results presented in this thesis document the initial biochemical characterisation of the complex Mcb1 forms with Mcm proteins, the MCMᴹᶜᵇ¹ complex. Interactions of Mcb1 with Mcm proteins, potential interaction sites between the proteins and the size of the complex were analysed using a variety of methods, including tandem affinity purification, co-immunoprecipitation, sucrose gradients and in vitro pull-down assays. Sequence analysis and structure prediction were utilised to gain some insight into Mcb1 and MCM-BP ancestry and structure. Results presented here indicate that fission yeast Mcb1 shares homology with Mcm proteins and forms a complex with Mcm3-Mcm7 but not Mcm2 and thus replaces the latter in an alternative high molecular weight complex that is likely to have an MCM-like appearance. Deletion of mcb1⁺ showed that Mcb1 is essential in fission yeast. To examine the cellular function of the protein, temperature-sensitive mutants were generated. Inactivation of Mcb1 leads to an increase in DNA damage and cell cycle arrest in G2-phase depending on the activation of the Chk1 dependent DNA damage checkpoint. Similar observations were made when Mcb1 was overexpressed, indicating that certain levels of the protein are important for accurate DNA replication. Construction of truncated versions of Mcb1 suggested that almost the full-length protein is needed for proper function.

The evolutionary pressure to prevent re-replication by inactivating licensing during S phase leaves higher-eukaryotes with large genomes, such as human cells, vulnerable to replication stresses. Origins licensed in G1 must be sufficient to complete replication as new origins cannot be licensed in response to irreversible replication fork stalling. Interdisciplinary approaches between cellular biology and biophysics predict that replication of the genome is routinely incomplete in G2, even in the absence of external stressors. The frequency of converging replication forks that never terminate due to irreversible stalling (double fork stall), which result in a segment of unreplicated DNA, was modelled using high quality origin-mapping data in HeLa and IMR-90 cells. From this, hypotheses were generated that related an increase in unreplicated segments of DNA to reduced functional origin number. Presented in this thesis is the confirmation of this relation by quantifying chromosome mis-segregation and DNA damage responses when origin number was reduced using RNAi against licensing factors. The number of ultrafine anaphase bridges and 53BP1 nuclear bodies are in remarkable concordance with the theoretical predictions for the number of double fork stalls, indicating that cells are able to tolerate under-replication through such post-replicative cellular responses. 53BP1 preferentially binds to chromatin associated with large replicons, and functions synergistically with dormant origins to protect the stability of the genome. Additional candidates, inspired by common fragile site research, have also been characterised as responders to spontaneous under-replication, and include FANCD2 and MiDAS, which function in early mitosis to facilitate completion of replication before cells enter anaphase. In conclusion, a series of mechanisms that sequentially function throughout the cell cycle protects the stability of the human genome against inevitable spontaneous under-replication brought about by its large size.

En 2015, la récidive tumorale et les métastases du cancer du sein demeurent une cause importante de décès à travers le monde. Toutefois, ces cancers sont souvent hétérogènes car en dépit d’un phénotype similaire, l’évolution clinique et la réponse au traitement peuvent varier considérablement. Il y a donc un intérêt évident à identifier et à caractériser de nouveaux biomarqueurs pour permettre classer les tumeurs mammaires dans des sous-groupes plus homogènes. Notre hypothèse est que chaque cancer mammaire possède des caractéristiques distinctes au plan des altérations du génome et des profils d’expression géniques et que ces changements se traduisent cliniquement par une prédisposition à former des métastases ou à répondre ou non à la chimiothérapie et aux thérapies ciblées. Dans le cadre de nos travaux, nous nous sommes intéressés aux sous-types agressifs de tumeurs mammaires et notamment les cancers de type triple négatif. Nous avons aussi tenté d’identifier des marqueurs capables de distinguer l’une de l’autre les tumeurs de type luminal A et luminal B. Pour ce faire, nous avons d’abord utilisé une stratégie in silico à partir de données publiques (micro-puces d’ADN et séquençage de l’ARN). Nous avons ensuite construit sept micro-matrices tissulaires (TMA) provenant de tissus mammaires normaux et tumoraux fixés à la formaline et enrobés en paraffine. Ces outils nous ont permis d’évaluer par immunohistochimie les niveaux d’expression différentielle des marqueurs suivants : ANXA1, MMP-9, DP103 et MCM2. Ceux-ci ont été comparés aux marqueurs usuels du cancer du sein (ER, PR, HER2, CK5/6 et FOXA1) et corrélés aux données cliniques (survie globale et métastase). Nos résultats indiquent que ces nouveaux marqueurs jouent un rôle important dans l’évolution clinique défavorable des tumeurs de haut grade. Dans un premier article nous avons montré que l’expression d’ANXA1 est dérégulée dans les cancers de type triple-négatif et aussi, dans une certaine mesure, dans les tumeurs HER2+. Nous croyons qu’ANXA1 permet de mieux comprendre le processus d’hétérogénéité tumorale et facilite l’identification des tumeurs de haut grade. Nous proposons également qu’ d’ANXA1 stimule la transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse (EMT) et la formation des métastases. Dans un second temps, nous avons montré que les niveaux d’expression de MMP-9 reflètent la différenciation cellulaire et corrèlent avec les sous-types de cancers mammaires ayant un mauvais pronostic. Nous estimons que MMP-9 permet de mieux comprendre et d’identifier les tumeurs mammaires à haut risque. De fait, la surexpression de MMP-9 est associée à une augmentation des métastases, une récidive précoce et une diminution de la survie globale. Dans le cadre d’un troisième article, nous avons montré que la surexpression du marqueur de prolifération MCM2 s’observe dans les cancers triple-négatifs, HER2+ et Luminal B par comparaison aux cancers luminal A (p< 0.0001). Nos résultats suggèrent qu’en utilisant un seuil de 40% de noyaux marqués, nous pourrions distinguer l’une de l’autre les tumeurs de type luminal A et luminal B. Cela dit, avant de pouvoir envisager l’utilisation de ce marqueur en clinique, une étude de validation sur une nouvelle cohorte de patientes s’impose. En somme, les résultats de nos travaux suggèrent qu’ANXA1, MMP-9 et MCM2 sont des marqueurs intéressants pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes physiopathologiques impliqués dans la progression tumorale et le développement des métastases. À terme, ces nouveaux marqueurs pourraient être utilisés seuls ou en combinaison avec d’autres gènes candidats pour permettre le développement de trousses « multigènes » ou d’essais protéomiques multiplex pour prédire l’évolution clinique des cancers mammaires. / In 2015, breast cancer remains a leading cause of death among women worldwide due to relapse and metastases. However, mammary tumors are known to be heterogeneous in terms of their clinical course and response to treatment, despite a seemingly similar phenotype. There is therefore an obvious need to identify and characterize new biomarkers of progression in breast cancers so that each tumor can be properly classified. Our hypothesis is that each breast cancer has its own set of genomic abnormalities or altered pattern of gene expression that can explain the aggressiveness of each tumor, its ability to metastasize and its response to chemotherapeutic agents or other forms of targeted therapies. In this study, our aim is to identify and characterize new biomarkers with prognostic value in aggressive subsets of breast cancer focusing primarily on triple-negative tumors and luminal B breast cancer. To achieve those aims, we conducted an in silico search from public databases of DNA microchip and RNA sequencing data. We next constructed seven tissue microarrays (TMA) using paraffin blocks from human breast cancer along with normal breast to examine the differential expression of new putative markers: ANXA1, MMP-9, DP103 and MCM2. Expression levels measured by immunohistochemistry were then compared to other conventional markers of breast cancer (ER, PR, HER2, Ki-67, CK 5/6, FOXA1) and correlated with clinical data (overall survival and metastasis). By comparing the relative expression of these markers in human breast tumors we were able to pinpoint the important role of ANXA1, MMP-9, DP103, and MCM2 in aggressive tumor subtypes recognized for their poor clinical course. Firstly, we have shown that ANXA1 expression is severely deregulated in high-grade breast cancers including triple-negative and, to some extent, HER2-positive breast cancers. In addition, our results also indicated a possible role of ANXA1 in regulating EMT and breast cancer cell metastasis. Secondly, expression of MMP-9 was found to mirror the degree of tumor differentiation and to correlate with breast cancers of unfavorable outcome. This implies that MMP-9 can help better characterize the biology of breast carcinoma and to identify subgroups of high-risk breast tumors. In fact, we found that high levels of MMP-9 in tumors were associated with increased metastatic dissemination, early relapse and reduced survival. Thirdly, we demonstrated that MCM2 is overexpressed in triple-negative, HER2 positive and luminal B breast cancer in comparison to luminal A breast cancer (p-value < 0.0001). Our findings support the notion that MCM2 can be used to distinguish luminal A from luminal B breast cancer based on a 40% index cut-point. However, an independent validation cohort is needed to confirm the clinical utility of MCM2. Lastly, our results suggest that ANXA1, MMP-9 and MCM2 are valuable genes/proteins candidate that can help better understand the mechanisms involved in tumor progression and metastasis. One may also envisage their use, alone or in combination with other genes, in the development of a multi-gene panel or multiplex proteomic assay to predict clinical outcome and guide therapeutic decisions.