While studies suggest that figurative, or non-literal, meanings are automatically activated in single language users, little is known about how language proficiency may influence the automaticity of non-literal meaning activation. The present research sought to address this issue by comparing figurative language activation in Spanish-English bilinguals. An interference paradigm (Glucksberg, Gildea & Bookin, 1982) was used in which participants were to judge the literal truth or falsity of statements of the form Some Xs are Ys. Judgments on this task are typically slower to statements that, though literally false, are metaphorically true (e.g., Some lawyers are sharks), suggesting that metaphorical meanings are non-optionally activated (at least in single language users). The present research involved four experiments: Experiment 1 conducted with English-speaking monolinguals, replicated the metaphor interference effect; in Experiment 2 the effect was replicated in English-dominant and in balanced bilinguals tested only in English. Experiment 3 conducted with bilinguals tested in both languages, showed that the metaphor interference effect was not obtained in either language in English-dominant bilinguals and was obtained in Spanish only in the balanced group. The findings from Experiments 1 and 2 support the view that nonliteral (metaphoric) meanings are automatically accessed in monolinguals and bilinguals alike. Experiment 3 involved a fewer number of metaphor trials per language, raising the possibility that this procedural difference may have led to a weakening of the metaphor interference effect. This possibility was directly tested in Experiment 4, conducted with English-speaking monolinguals presented with the same number of metaphor trials as the bilinguals in Experiment 3. The results showed a clear metaphor interference, even with the reduced number of trials. As such, the findings of Experiment 3, where a metaphor interference effect was obtained only for Spanish items, are somewhat equivocal: at face value, they suggest that the effect is modulated by language proficiency. Alternatively, the metaphor interference effect may turn out to be present in both languages, but may simply have been obscured by variability owing to the small sample size per language order. Which of these two interpretations turns out to be valid will depend on additional testing. Implications of the present findings for theories of the organization of the bilingual representational system are addressed.

Abstract The purpose of this essay was to examine what methods might be used in translation from English to Swedish of two informative newspaper articles about current events, which took place in 2010 and 2011, viz. the publishing of secret documents on the Internet by JulianAssange and WikiLeaks. The study is based on Lakoff and Johnson’s theories on metaphorical concepts, presented in their work Metaphors We Live By (1980/2003), and the focus of the translation study is on metaphors and metonomy. The texts contain a large number of metaphors. Almost 100 of those have been listed in an Appendix, attached to this paper, and a great many of these metaphors were analysed. The special metaphor types of metonomy and personification were studied separately, as well as together with the rest of the metaphors. The theoretical model used was Vinay and Darbelnet’s theories of direct and oblique translation, comprising the following seven strategies: literal translation, borrowing, calque, transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation. Other theorists, whose professional expertise and experience proved useful in this work, were Munday, Newmark and Ingo. Parallel texts, monolingual dictionaries and the Internet were also most valuable in the translation process. Choosing the appropriate and correct vocabulary and expression in the target language was not always an easy task, and certain words and passages translated were revised on several occasions. As for the translation strategies used, equivalence was the most interesting one, and transposition should perhaps have been used to a larger extent. Literal translation was probably used most of them all.

While studies suggest that figurative, or non-literal, meanings are automatically activated in single language users, little is known about how language proficiency may influence the automaticity of non-literal meaning activation. The present research sought to address this issue by comparing figurative language activation in Spanish-English bilinguals. An interference paradigm (Glucksberg, Gildea & Bookin, 1982) was used in which participants were to judge the literal truth or falsity of statements of the form Some Xs are Ys. Judgments on this task are typically slower to statements that, though literally false, are metaphorically true (e.g., Some lawyers are sharks), suggesting that metaphorical meanings are non-optionally activated (at least in single language users). The present research involved four experiments: Experiment 1 conducted with English-speaking monolinguals, replicated the metaphor interference effect; in Experiment 2 the effect was replicated in English-dominant and in balanced bilinguals tested only in English. Experiment 3 conducted with bilinguals tested in both languages, showed that the metaphor interference effect was not obtained in either language in English-dominant bilinguals and was obtained in Spanish only in the balanced group. The findings from Experiments 1 and 2 support the view that nonliteral (metaphoric) meanings are automatically accessed in monolinguals and bilinguals alike. Experiment 3 involved a fewer number of metaphor trials per language, raising the possibility that this procedural difference may have led to a weakening of the metaphor interference effect. This possibility was directly tested in Experiment 4, conducted with English-speaking monolinguals presented with the same number of metaphor trials as the bilinguals in Experiment 3. The results showed a clear metaphor interference, even with the reduced number of trials. As such, the findings of Experiment 3, where a metaphor interference effect was obtained only for Spanish items, are somewhat equivocal: at face value, they suggest that the effect is modulated by language proficiency. Alternatively, the metaphor interference effect may turn out to be present in both languages, but may simply have been obscured by variability owing to the small sample size per language order. Which of these two interpretations turns out to be valid will depend on additional testing. Implications of the present findings for theories of the organization of the bilingual representational system are addressed.

This thesis seeks to re-evaluate the role of trope in English late-medieval poetic narratives. The main texts included in this study are The Floure and the Leafe, The Assembly of Ladies, Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, Lydgate's Temple of Glas, The Kingis Quair, Skelton's Bowge of Court and Garlande or Chapelet of Laurell, and The Isle of Ladies. Material drawn from other latemedieval texts is used for comparative and illustrative purposes. Study of these texts suggests that trope should be approached as a constitutive element of narrative structure, and so, while a particular use of familiar trope emerges in this study, the thesis also offers a methodology of reading which may be useful for understanding late-medieval narrative poems in general. One of the major issues discussed in the thesis is the relation of the individual text to a poetic discourse which is seen as pre-given and in determining relation to narrative structures. The thesis traces the emergence of a range of metaphors for the discussion of poetic and linguistic issues in narrative poems themselves. In particular, images of navigation are isolated as a major metaphorics of writing seen as an activity which engages with a problematics of the control of a pre-given discourse. Thus the thesis identifies the use made of trope, in a fifteenth-century poetic, to provide a comprehensive language for the discussion of meta-fictional and meta-linguistic issues. The introductory chapter examines the implications for fifteenth-century narrative of its response to an inherited (mainly) Chaucerian poetic discourse. The second section of this chapter also provides a study of the possible role of trope in narrative texts. The claim that trope is a constitutive element of narrative structures is tested by a reading of The Floure and the Leafe in section three of this chapter. In section four The Assembly of Ladies is studied as a text which exemplifies fifteenth-century narrative poems' selfconsciousness about the writing process. Chapter Two examines Chaucer's strategies towards lyric trope in Troilus and Criseyde, and then discusses Lydgate's reading of those strategies of The Temple of Glas. The objective of this chapter is to point out some of the different responses to the use of lyric tropes in poetic narrative. In Chapter Three The Kingis Quair is studied as a text which fictionalises the pleasure and confidence which may accrue from the 'mastery' or control of poetic discourse both past and present. In contrast, in Chapter Four, Skelton's Bowge of Courte presents a fiction of the anxieties of writing within a specific, prescribed poetic discourse. In this poem Skelton generates a narrative from the use of the typical anxieties of the conventional modesty topos. Skelton's Garlande or Chapelet of Laurell, provides a contrast to The Bowge for while it uses similar metaphors for its discussion of poetic issues, it constructs a fiction of poetic virtuosity; of over-confidence rather than high anxiety. Finally, in Chapter Five a study of The Isle of Ladies suggests that this text may stand as a comprehensive overview of fifteenth-century writers' knowing use of commonplace tropes and also of the relation of the individual text to its pre-given intertextually constituted, poetic discourse

The subject of the present research is the phenomenon of metaphors in the novel “Moby Dick” by Herman Melville (translated by Irena Balčiūnienė) in the aspect of translation. The aim is to analyze the ways of translating metaphors and to determine what structural changes they undergo in the process of translation. For this purpose 711 examples of metaphors have been selected and classified according to their translation into the Lithuanian language from the point of view of co-text (i.e. the linguistic environment of the metaphor.

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This study focuses on the translation of metaphors with a special focus on embodied metaphors. It is based on Newmark’s (1981:84−91) translation strategies and uses chapter 15, “Currents and Tides”, from Tristan Gooley’s nature book How to Read Water, Clues & Patterns from Puddles to the Sea (2016) as corpus for metaphor translation analysis. Through a prescriptive and descriptive approach to translation analysis, this study aims to investigate how metaphors are translated from the source language English to the target language Swedish.              The findings of the study indicate that the most common translation strategy is to reproduce the metaphor in the target text, followed by either a) finding an acceptable equivalent, or b) conversion from a metaphor to sense in the target language. This suggests that the level of embodied reading is lower in the target text than in the source text. However, because of the limited range of this study, no firm conclusions can be made.

This study was interested in assessing whether any disparity between formal policy and employee experience exists within a South African organisation. Specifically, the research identified the images and metaphors presented within an organization’s formal policy documents on diversity and then assessed the extent to which those images reflect a culture of diversity within the organisation. The researcher made use of qualitative methods in the form of content and discourse analysis and in-depth interviews. The results suggest that while the images and metaphors found in policy documents do in fact represent a culture of diversity in its stated intentions, practically, as experienced by employees, a culture for diversity remains limited.

<p>The aim of this study was to find out if there are any differences in the use of metaphors and similes in children’s literature translated from Swedish into English. With two books selected by the same Swedish author, three groups of metaphors were studied -- structural, orientational and ontological metaphors -- as well as two groups of similes -- same image and similar image similes. The result showed that the Swedish versions of the two books contained more metaphors than the English versions, whereas the similes occurred to the same extent in both languages. </p>