A considerable amount of scholars, researchers and international actors have labeled the practise of female genital mutilation (FGM) a social norm, a large majority of these have failed to consider why they have made such a classification. This thesis investigates whether considering FGM a social norm is justifiable. This is done by applying the practise to Cristina Bicchieri’s model for diagnosing collective behaviour. The material which is used include quantitative data derived from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), as well as qualitative data in the form of previously conducted interviews. The social norms theory, and secondary analysis as a method, are used. Applying the practise of FGM to Bicchieri’s model showed that FGM fulfills the criteria suggested by the model which indicates that a collective practise is a social norm, which led to the conclusion that FGM can be justifiably considered a social norm.

This paper aims to shed light on the intersex infant, a baby born with an unclear gender. The main goal of the paper is to discuss whether unnecessary gender normalizing surgeries on infants, also called intersex genital mutilation (IGM) that is not necessary to preserve the life or physical health of the infant is in the best interest of the child. Legal method will be used to frame the topic in a legal context and discourse analysis in combination with content analysis will be applied in order to understand the transformation of intersex, from being a social emergency to becoming a human rights issue. The use of the concept, the best interest of the child will serve as an analytical framework together with a theoretical framework consisting of queer theory. Together it will help to map out the human rights challenges regarding IGM as a socially constructed medical product that needs to be highlighted and prevented in order to secure the rights of the child. Hopefully, the concluding results will contribute to further awareness on the issue of unnecessary infant intersex surgery and frame it in a human rights context.

Magister Public Health - MPH / This study analyses media representations of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) in two Ugandan daily English newspapers. FGM/C is recognized by the World Health Organization as an extreme form of violation of the rights, health and integrity of women and girls. In Uganda, although the overall prevalence of FGM/C is 0.3 percent of the population, FGM/C remains a harmful practice that constitutes a serious threat to the health of women and girls in communities that practice it. Despite existence of a national legal and policy framework that discourages FGM/C, progress in the eradication of the practice remains slow.

Bakgrund: Världshälsoorganisationen uppskattar att 200 miljoner kvinnor lever med könsstympning världen runt. Könsstympning är en traditionell procedur som ger omfattande komplikationer för kvinnans kropp och psyke samt kränker mänskliga rättigheter. Den grundutbildade sjuksköterskan har huvudansvaret för omvårdnaden och bör erbjuda kvinnan god personcentrerad vård. Därmed är kunskap om olika aspekter av könsstympning nödvändig. Syfte: Att undersöka hur kvinnor som blivit könsstympade upplever mötet med hälso- och sjukvården avseende bemötande, kunskap och stöd. Metod: Allmän litteraturöversikt baserat på 9 kvalitativa vetenskapliga artiklar från databaserna Pubmed och CINAHL. Resultat: De könsstympade kvinnornas upplevelser utmynnades i nio subkategorier;“Positiva upplevelser av mötet med sjukvården”, “Negativa attityder från sjukvårdspersonalen”, “Upplevelsen av att känna sig annorlunda och som ett studieobjekt”, “Sjukvårdspersonalens kunskap om könsstympning,” “Sjukvårdspersonalens brist på kunskap, “Information om möjligheter och risker”, “Språket - en tillgång eller ett hinder”, “Anpassat stöd” och “Bristande stöd”. Resultatet visade ett behov av ytterligare teoretisk och praktisk utbildning inom könsstympning och även en utökad kulturell medvetenhet för att förbättra hanteringen av denna patientgrupp. Slutsats: Könsstympade kvinnor upplevde en trygghet när sjukvårdspersonalen toghänsyn till kvinnornas behov och hanterade mötet väl. Trots detta var de negativa upplevelser mest framträdande, dessa baserades på sjukvårdspersonalens bristande kulturell kompetens och kunskap om könsstympningen samt kommunikationssvårigheter. I takt med den ökade migrationen till Europa förväntas denna patientgrupp att öka, därmed behövs ytterligare forskning och utbildning inom detta fält för att förbättra vården för könsstympade kvinnor. / Background: World health organisation estimates that 200 million women are living with genital mutilation around the world. Female genital mutilation is a traditional procedure that causes extensive complications for the woman's body and mind and is a violation of human rights. The basic trained nurse has the main responsibility of the nursing care and should provide the woman with good patient-centered care. Therefore, knowledge about the different aspects of genital mutilation is necessary. Aim: To explore genital mutilated women’s experiences of the encounter with healthcare regarding approach, knowledge and support. Method: A literature review based on 9 qualitative scientific articles from the Pubmed and CINAHL databases. Result: The women’s experience culminated nine subcategories; “Positive experiences of the encounter with healthcare”, “Negative attitudes from the healthcare professionals”, “Theexperience of being different and being a subject of study”, “The healthcare professionals’ awareness regarding gender mutilation”, “The healthcare professionals lack of knowledge”, “Information regarding possibilities and risks”, “The language- a resource or an obstacle?”, “Customized support” and “Lack of support”. The results of this study demonstrated legitimate arguments for the necessity of broader understanding and training for health care professionals in order to improve the management of this patient group. Conclusion: Women with female genital mutilation experienced comfort when healthcare professionals took their needs into account and handled the encounter well. Regardless, the negative experiences were most prominent. These were based on healthcare professionals’ lack of cultural awareness and knowledge about genital mutilation as well as difficulties in communication. Due to the increased migration from countries where female genital mutilation is practised this patient group could be expected to increase in European healthcare, therefore more research and education within this field is needed in order to improve the care for genital mutilated women.

This volume examines the relationship between female beauty ideals and concepts of femininity in different ethnic groups. Understanding the body as a carrier of social and cultural signs, it attempts to connect the direct and indirect implications of specific techniques of body modification with the social roles of women within their respective ethnic groups.

BACKGROUND Female genital mutilation is a traditional procedure that harms women's and girls' health globally, based on a social construct in which women are seen as private property of men and are considered objects that meet men's sexual needs. PURPOSE The purpose of the study was to describe how women who have been subjected to genital mutilation experience health, mental and social well-being. METHOD A literature review containing eight qualitative and two mixed methods original articles. The text has been discussed based on Madeleine Leininger's theory of diversity and universality in culture-related care. RESULTS: The result revealed tree themes and sub-themes: Deteriorating sexual health, sexual health and longing for intimacy and pleasure; Well-being, physical suffering and mental suffering; Experiences of health. Female genital mutilation affected health, mental and social well-being in different ways. Some participants in the analyzed studies justify genital mutilation through religion and some through culture, but all agreed that non-genitally mutilated women have less opportunity for marriage. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that women who have undergone female genital mutilation have a complex problem that affects their health both mentally and physically. / BAKGRUND Kvinnlig könsstympning är ett traditionellt ingrepp som skadar kvinnors och flickors hälsa globalt, grundad på en social konstruktion i vilken kvinnan ses som privat egendom till mannen och betraktas som föremål som uppfyller mannens sexuella behov. SYFTE Syftet med studien var att beskriva hur kvinnor som utsatts för könsstympning upplever hälsan, psykiska och sociala välbefinnandet. METOD En litteraturöversikt som innehåller primära källor av åtta kvalitativa och två mixade metoder. Texten diskuterats utifrån Madeleine Leiningers teori om mångfald och universalitet i kulturrelaterad omvårdnad. RESULTAT I resultatet framkom tre teman med subteman: Försämrad sexuell hälsa, sexuell hälsa och längtan efter intimitet och njutning; Välbefinnande, fysisk lidande och psykisk lidande; Upplevelser av hälsan. Kvinnlig könsstympning påverkade hälsan, det psykiska och sociala välbefinnandet på olika sätt. En del av deltagare i de analyserade studier motiverar könsstympningen genom religion och en del genom kultur men alla kom överens om att icke-könsstympade kvinnor har mindre möjligheter till äktenskap. SLUTSATSER Resultatet visar på att kvinnor som genomgått kvinnlig könsstympning har en komplex problematik som påverkar hälsan både psykiskt och fysiskt.

BAKGRUND: Kvinnlig könsstympning är en traditionell sed djupt rotad i kultur och religion. Ingreppet innebär ett delvist eller fullständigt avlägsnande eller annan skada på de kvinnliga genitalierna av icke medicinska skäl. Ingreppet medför allvarliga hälsorisker och påverkar kvinnors sexuella hälsa. Idag beräknas över 200 miljoner kvinnor och flickor vara könsstympade världen över. För att kunna erbjuda dessa kvinnor vård av högsta kvalité är det av vikt att sjuksköterskan besitter djupare kunskap om fenomenet. SYFTE: Beskriva upplevelsen av sexuell hälsa hos kvinnor som har genomgått könsstympning. METOD: En deskriptiv litteraturöversikt som bygger på tio artiklar med en kvalitativ ansats samt en artikel med en mixad metod. För artikelsökningarna har databaserna Cinahl Complete och PubMed använts. Analysen har utförts i enlighet med Polit och Beck (2021). RESULTAT: Litteraturöversikten resulterade i två kategorier och fyra underkategorier; Fysiska erfarenheter; Att begränsas i sin sexuella hälsa & att leva med smärtsamma komplikationer samt Psykiska erfarenheter; Att få men för livet & att känna bristen på lust och intimitet. SLUTSATS: FGM har en negativ verkan på kvinnans sexuella hälsa. Studiens data visar att en kunskapsbrist föreligger hos sjuksköterskor gällande FGM. För att främja god sexuella hälsa behöver sjuksköterskor tydligare riktlinjer samt mer kunskap om ingreppets kulturella rötter och konsekvenser. / BACKGROUND: Female genital mutilation is a traditional practice deeply rooted in culture and religion. The procedure involves a partial or complete removal or other harm to the female genitalia for non-medical reasons. The procedure poses serious health risks and affects women's sexual health. Today, more than 200 million women and girls are estimated to be genital mutilated worldwide. In order to offer these women care of the highest quality it is of great importance that the nurse possesses deeper knowledge of the phenomenon. AIM: Highlight the experience of sexual health in women who have undergone genital mutilation. METHOD: A descriptive literature review based on ten articles with a qualitative approach and one article with a mixed method. For article searches, databases Cinahl Complete and PubMed have been used. The analysis has been carried out in accordance with Polit and Beck (2021). RESULT: The literature review resulted in two categories and four subcategories; Physical experiences; To be limited in their sexual health & to live with painful complication as well as Mental experiences; To be permanently marked & to feel the lack of desire and intimacy. CONCLUSION: FGM has a negative effect on women's sexual health. The study's data show that there is a lack of knowledge amongst nurses regarding FGM. To promote good sexual health nurses need clearer guidelines as well as more knowledge about the cultural roots of the procedure and its consequences.

Kenya is one of the Sub-Saharan countries that continue to experience incidences of FGM among various ethnic communities. While FGM prevalence has reduced significantly in the last decade due to government crackdowns and the adoption of relevant anti-practice laws, several Kenyan communities continue to circumcise girls and women secretly. The current study sought to examine the role of socioeconomic factors in the continuation of FGM in Kenya. The study was guided by the tenets of structural functionalism. This theory was selected because of its efficacy in explaining how institutions such as family, economy, and education contribute to the persistence of FGM among Kenyan communities. The study utilized grounded theory as the principal methodology. Research materials in this study included scholarly sources published in credible databases. The strong association between marriageability and FGM, Islam, cultural rigidity, the fear of social stigma, the view of circumcision as a rite of passage, and the perceived safety offered by medicalization have ensured the continuation of the practice. From an economic standpoint, the depiction of FGM as a prerequisite to bride price, as well as the monetization of the practice by medical practitioners and families, have contributed significantly to its persistence.

Sammanfattning Bakgrund: Kvinnlig könsstympning är en hälso- och människorättsfråga som sträcker sig till västländer. Det uppskattas att det bor omkring 125 miljoner kvinnor med kvinnlig könsstympning över hela världen. Ungefär 38 000 könsstympade kvinnor lever i Sverige, varav 7000 är flickor som är underåriga. Förekomsten av kvinnlig könsstympning är högst i de afrikanska länderna, men kan även förekomma på andra håll i världen, såsom mellanöstern. Det finns inga hälsofördelar med kvinnlig könsstympning. Däremot har könsstympning både kortsiktiga och långsiktiga negativa hälsokonsekvenser som kan leda till fysiska och psykologiska problem. Syfte: Syftet med denna litteraturöversikt är att beskriva hur könsstympade kvinnor upplever mötet med sjukvården.Metod: En beskrivande litteraturstudie som är baserad på elva empiriska originalstudier. Studierna söktes i databasen PubMed. Resultat: Efter sammanfattande av de elva studierna identifierades två huvudteman som är “negativa upplevelser av möten med sjukvården” och “positiva upplevelser av möten med sjukvården”. Det första huvudtemat inkluderar tre underteman: “könsstympade kvinnors upplevelse av att känna sig uttittad av vårdpersonalen”, “könsstympade kvinnors upplevelse av att känna sig tvingade till kejsarsnitt” och “könsstympade kvinnors upplevelse av brister i kommunikationen med vården”. Slutsats: Könsstympade kvinnor hade negativa och positiva upplevelser vid sina möten med sjukvården. Könsstympade kvinnor stötte på negativa attityder när de mötte sina vårdgivare, såsom kränkande kommentarer, kommunikationssvårigheter och saknad av respekt. En del könsstympade kvinnor upplevde även att de blev tvingade till ett kejsarsnitt. Vissa kvinnors erfarenheter och upplevelser av mötet med sjukvården tyder på en markant frånvaro av empatisk och professionell vård samt kunskapsluckor hos vårdpersonalen om kvinnlig könsstympning. En mer patientcentrerad och mänsklig rättighetsbaserad vård bör tillämpas för att kunna erbjuda en omvårdnad av hög kvalitet till dessa kvinnor. Nyckelord: Hälso- och sjukvårdspersonal, Kvinnlig könsstympning, Omskärelse, Upplevelse / ABSTRACT Background: Female genital mutilation is a health and human rights issue that extends to Western countries. It is estimated that there are around 125 million women with female genital mutilation worldwide. About 38,000 women with genital mutilation live in Sweden, of which 7,000 are girls who are minors. The prevalence of female genital mutilation is highest in African countries, but can also occur elsewhere in the world, such as in the Middle East. There are no health benefits of female genital mutilation. However, genital mutilation has both short-term and long-term negative health consequences that can lead to physical and psychological problems. Aim: The purpose of this literature review is to describe how women with genital mutilation experience the encounter with healthcare. Method: A descriptive literature study based on eleven empirical original studies. The PubMed database was used to search for the studies. Results: After summarizing the eleven studies, two main themes were identified which are "negative experiences of encounters with healthcare" and "positive experiences of encounters with healthcare". The first main themes include three sub-themes: "women with genital mutilation’s experience of feeling stared at by healthcare providers”, "women with genital mutilation’s experience of being forced to have a caesarean section" and “women with genital mutilation’s experience of shortcomings in communication with health care providers". Conclusion: Women with genital mutilation had both negative and positive experiences in their encounters with healthcare. Women with genital mutilation encountered negative attitudes when they met their caregivers, such as abusive comments, communication difficulties and lack of respect. Some women with genital mutilation experienced also that they were forced to have a caesarean section. Some women's experiences of their encounters with health care indicate a marked absence of empathic and professional care as well as knowledge gaps among the healthcare providers about female genital mutilation. A more patient-centered and human rights-based care should be applied to be able to offer high-quality care to these women. Keyword: Circumcision, Experience, Female genital mutilation, Healthcare personnel

Over 200 million women and girls alive today have been victims of Female Geni-tal Mutilation / Cutting, and another 3,6 million are at risk every year. This tradi-tional practice is widespread and has gained a lot of attention from Non-governmental organizations, scholars and medical professionals around the world, stating warnings about the harmful effects. Yet, the prevalence and continuance are still not regressing in a desirable rate. Many countries have enacted legislative actions against the practice, among these countries is the West African nation of The Gambia. The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine and analyse what experiences and perceptions NGOs in The Gambia have with using legislative ac-tion against FGM /C, how their work has changed due to the legislation as well as examine their perception on local community attitudes towards the law. This has been done using the theories of Cultural Relativism vs Universalism and through selected concepts within Hofstede's Theory of Cultural Dimensions. This study will theorise what happens when a law representing western norms and values gets implemented in a society where culture, traditions and the collective group is high-ly important. Our findings show that The Gambia, in particularly local communi-ties, holds a strong cultural relativistic mentality and is characterized by a collec-tivistic culture in which the power distance is high. This society puts emphasis on collective identity, solidarity and collective decisions as well as traditional heritage and cultural values. Implementing a law that promotes western values thus brings problems and a lack of efficiency.