This paper deals with monetary development on Gotland during 11th century. The expectation is that by examining five different silver-hoards from various parts of the century it will be able to determine if there are any signs of monetary developments. By examining the silver-hoards weight and comparing the weight difference between the Coined silver, the fragmented coins and other silver objects, this paper determine which of these dominate the silver-hoards in 11thcentury. Apart from the weight comparison an accurate study of the degree of fragmentation on coins in the silver-hoards will give a detailed account on how the people of Gotland treated their coins, if they cut the coins into smaller pieces or if they handled them whole. Apart from the study of the silver-hoards there is a chapter on earlier research where the reader will acquire the knowledge to comprehend the other parts of the paper. Which include a theory chapter where the author discusses what factors need be in place for monetary development to commence and what monetary development imply. After the theory chapter the survey is presented and then discussed in the chapter after that.

Diss. Uppsala : Uppsala universitet, 2008.

This thesis investigates the use of propaganda in the form of iconography on Roman coins minted during the reign of the emperor Hadrian. More specifically this paper investigates the use of coins during the transitional period of Hadrian’s ascension to emperor and his use of iconography on coin minted during his famous travels of the empire, as well as coins minted in local provincial mints. For this investigation fifty coins of significance have been chosen for analysis, these coins are minted either during the early years of Hadrian's reign or during his travels. The theory used in this paper bases itself on the thought of “fabrication” by Peter Burke in the Fabrication of Louis XIV. The result of this study shows how Hadrian chose to portray himself in relation to his predecessor and how he used iconography to reinforce Roman rule over the provinces.

Background. As the financial systems around the world become more digitized with the use of a card and mobile payments - we see a decrease in willingness to accept cash payments in many countries. These digital payments require a stable network connection to be processed in real-time. In rural areas or during times of crisis where these network connections may be unavailable there is a need to resort to some payment method that works offline. Paper cash is preferred by some because of its anonymous nature and with the realization of blind signatures the concept of digital cash was constructed. Digital cash is a digitized version of the traditional paper cash that values payer privacy and can be spent while both parties are offline with the use of smart cards or other mobile devices. Unlike physical paper cash, digital cash is without additional mitigations easily copied and forged as they only consist of information. Objectives. The objective of this work is to determine the viability of digital cash as a replacement or complement to today’s paper cash. The results will describe our findings on what technologies are necessary to securely exchange digital cash offline, as well as our findings on whether arbitrary payment amounts can be exchanged efficiently as well as exchanged between users of different banks. Methods. This work consists of threat modeling to identify the necessary technologies to securely exchange digital cash and what they accomplish. An extensive literature study and theoretical evaluations of state-of-the-art digital cash schemes are also part of the work. Results. The results show that digital cash can be constructed and exchanged securely with various optional features that make it more or less resemble its physical counterpart. With payer anonymity in the center and the inevitable risk of fraudulent users’ double-spending coins - the identified technologies do their best to reduce the cost-effectiveness of double-spending. Cryptographic solutions, as well as hard-to-tamper-with hardware, are the two key technologies for this. Advancements in cryptography have enabled more efficient storage and spending of digital cash with compact wallets and divisible digital cash. Conclusions. Digital cash has been a theoretical concept for almost four decades and is becoming more secure and efficient by being reconstructed using more modern cryptographic solutions. Depending on the requirements of the payment system, some schemes support arbitrary amount payment exchanges in constant time, be-tween users of different banks, transferability and some can run efficiently on privacy assuring hard-to-tamper with hardware. No scheme can do it all, but this work shines a light on some important considerations useful for future practical implementation of digital cash. / Bakgrund. Samtidigt som betalningar sker mer digitalt med hjälp av betalkort och mobiltelefoner ser vi hur färre försäljare accepterar kontanter som betalningsmedel. Det är här digitala betalningarna kräver stabil nätverksuppkoppling för att genom-föras och på avlägsna platser och under krissituationer kan den här uppkopplingen bli otillgänglig - vilket leder till ett behov för offline-betalningar. Kontanter används av några på grund av dess anonyma natur och med förverkligandet av blinda signaturer växte konceptet om digitala kontanter fram. Digitala kontanter är som det låter, en digital variant av kontanter som försöker uppnå samma anonymitet samt kunna överföras medan båda parter är offline med hjälp av betalkort eller andra mobila enheter. Till skillnad från fysiska kontanter kan dessa digitala mynt utan speciella åtgärder lätt kopieras och förfalskas eftersom de enbart består av information. Syfte. Syftet med det här arbetet är att ta redo på huruvida digitala kontanter kan ersätta eller fungera som ett komplement till dagens kontanter, samt ta redo på vilka möjligheter det finns för en implementation av ett sådant system idag. Resultatet ska beskriva våra upptäckter om vilka tekniker som behövs för att på ett säkert sätt kunna överföra digitala kontanter offline, samt våra upptäckter om huruvida godtyckliga summor kan överföras på ett effektivt sätt och mellan kunder av olika banker. Metod. Metoden vi använder består av att konstruera en hotmodell för att identifiera nödvändiga tekniker för att på ett säkert sätt kunna överföra digitala kontanter och kunna redogöra vad de uppfyller för funktioner. Arbetet innefattar även en omfattande litteraturstudie och teoretiska utvärderingar av toppmoderna digitala kontantsystem. Resultat. Resultatet visar att digitala kontanter kan konstrueras för att överföras säkert med flera frivilliga funktioner som gör att överföringarna mer eller mindre liknar sin fysiska motsvarighet. Genom att värna om ärliga betalares anonymitet och med en oundviklig risk för dubbelspendering gör de identifierade teknikerna sittbästa för att minska betalningstider och incitamentet att dubbelspendera med hjälp av kryptering och speciell svårmanipulerad hårdvara. Slutsatser. Digitala kontanter har funnits som ett teoretiskt koncept i snart fyradecennier och blir snabbt säkrare samt effektivare när de byggs om och baseras på nya krypteringslösningar. Beroende på vilka krav man har på sitt betalningssystem kan de byggas för att överföra godtyckliga summor i konstant tidskomplexitet, mellan användare av olika banker, överföras flera gånger likt vanliga kontanter eller med hjälp av svårmanipulerad hårdvara. Inget system kan göra allt idag och det här arbetet kan hjälpa den som vill bygga ett produktionssystem med vilka avväganden som kan göras.

The cities of Pergamon, Smyrna and Ephesus have caught the attention of many scholars throughout the world and many papers and studies have been written on their history. The focus for most of them have been the imperial cult and the status of the cities as neokoroi. Although this is an important part in the history of the three cities, these temples and the imperial cult is not the only time they have been influenced by the romans and their culture. This paper aims to explore the public identity of the cities trough the medium of coinage, and how their identity is influenced and changed by the introduction of the romans. By analysing iconography on coins from 200 BC-200 AD we get a more nuanced perspective on the relationship between the Romans and the three cities in question. Instead of seeing the imperial cult only as a product of the social and political landscape of the empire, we instead put them in a larger narrative of roman expansion and influence in the Greek east both before and during the republic. Trough Panofskys iconographical analysis method, the coins are placed in a historical, political, and cultural context that unlocks their full potential. By focusing on identity, the coins become representative of what the cities themselves choose to put forward and focus on. It shows the most important aspects of the local culture and what they think most represents the public life, which in turn shows us their public identity. This study determined that the introduction of the imperial cult during the first century AD was a culmination of a process that had started during the republic and the different ways the romans took control of the cities. It also determined that the different political and cultural situations that the cities found themselves during this 400-year period had a big part to play in how they adapted to the roman culture and the reign of the emperors.

The coin circulation in Denmark during Eric of Pomerania’s reign (1396-1439) has been studied systematically within the borders of today’s Denmark, but not Skåneland. This area is in today’s Sweden consisting of Halland, Scania, Blekinge and (Danish) Bornholm. The coin finds show that during 1400-1420 there was a considerable percentage of foreign coins in circulation, especially in churches. These were mostly used for fees in churches, but also had use in urban environments. The copper sterling represents the circulation of domestic coins during 1420-1440. The distribution of its minting cities showed that the local Lund type is the most common, followed by a similar percentage of Næstved and Randers types, and a lesser percentage of Odense types. The percentages of Lund and Odense types were expected but the similarities between Næstved and Randers types were not. Since Næstved types are the most common in today’s Denmark, and Randers types are a less circulated coin.

This paper looks to examine the relationship between the church buildings and archaeological finds from under the church floor in Silte parish on the baltic isle, Gotland. The material was excavated in 1971-1972, after evidence of an older wooden church was uncovered during restoration work. This older structure, revealed to have consisted of a chancel and choir, had evidently been connected to the present stone choir for some time. The well preserved foundation was excavated along with a rich archeological material consisting of, amongst other things, some 1700 coins and 18 graves along with skeletal material indicating an additional 25 individuals. In this thesis the material and the buildings are put into context and an attempt is made to link it to different phases of christianization. One connecting to the timbered stave church, and one to the later stone church. The results are then used to make a connection between this development and the formation of the parish system on the island and the increased stratification of church and society during the early Middle Ages in Sweden and Scandinavia.

The presence of roman coins outside of the Roman Empire during the Iron Age is a curiousthing. One would assume they represent a giant trade confederation of sorts, and one would notbe completely wrong in assuming so. The trade aspect of the Roman Empire to the north is stillsomething unknown. But this essays focus lies instead with how the coins were used in specificplaces in Scandinavia. This essay focuses on two central places, Gudme in Denmark, andUppåkra in Sweden, while also looking at stray coins in the northern part of Sweden todetermine if there is a correlation between a central place and stray finds out in the wilderness. The analysis of this essay showed a similar yet different use of the roman coins at the twocentral places. In Gudme the norm was to use the coins, as they were, in the metal workshops,or use them as clippings for using a smaller amount of metal in the rework of new items. InUppåkra the norm was instead to melt all coins down to metal bars for an easier storage and useof specific wights and metal in making new items. The correlation between the stray coins anda central place is that hunters or tradesmen travelled through the country and dropped coins.The analysis showed that the travellers where hunting and trading fur that were most likely soldin a central place like Uppåkra and then brought back to settlement in the north / Närvaron av romerska mynt utanför romarriket under järnåldern är en underlig sak. Antagandetsom har gjorts är att de representerade ett handels förbund av ett slag, och en har inte helt fel iatt anta så. Handelsaspekten av romarriket i norr är fortfarande okänt. Fokuset för denna uppsatsligger i stället hur de romerska mynten användes vid specifika platser i Skandinavien.Uppsatsen fokuserar på två centralplatser, Gudme i Danmark och Uppåkra i Sverige, detkommer även kolls på ströfynd i norra delen av Sverige för att ta reda på om en korrelationmellan centralplats och ströfynden i utmarken. Analysen av Uppsatsen visade på en liknande användning av mynten men ändå en olikhetvid de två centralplatserna. I Gudme var normen att använda mynten som de var imetallverkstäderna, eller använda dem som klippningar för att använda en mindre mängd metalli tillverkningen av nya föremål. I Uppåkra smältes mynten i stället ner till metalltackor förenklare förvaring samt att kunna använda en specifik metall eller mängd för att tillverka nyaföremål. Korrelationen mellan utmarksfynden och en centralplats var att jägare ellerhandelsmän reste genom landet och tappade mynt. Analysen visade att de jagade efter päls föratt sälja på centralplatser och fick romerska mynt som betalning och tog mynten till derasbosättningar i norra Sverige.

In the mid-10th century there was an increase of Byzantine coins to the Baltic area alongside the shift from the eastern Islamic dirhems to a western focus on German coins. This thesis sets out to study networks around the Baltic area from a perspective of Byzantine miliaresion minted by Constantine VII and Romanus II, Nicephorus II, John I Tzimisces and Basil II. The material consists of coin finds in foremostly hoards but also some grave finds from Gotland, mainland Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Belarus, Estonia and Finland. This essay will combine the use of two different methods, first a network analysis in Pajek and then a spatial analysis in GIS. With these two methods I want to investigate what the Byzantine coins can tell us about the transition period between the import of Islamic coins and German coins. Together with the Byzantine coins I will use other materials from Gotland such as shorttwig and longbranch runes, a type of metal vessel found in graves and a type of clay vessel with a special mark on the bottom. They will highlight different aspects of the Viking age networks, with a focus on Gotland. The result showes that the import of Byzantine silver coins into the Baltic in the 10th century consists of two phases. The first phase consists of miliaresia minted by Constantine VII and Romanus II, Nicephorus II and John I Tzimisces which were probably imported through Poland. On their way through Poland they mixed with early southern German coins from Bayern and Schwaben on their way to Denmark and Gotland. With the second phase the eastern coin import temporarily gets an upswing. The coins minted by Basil II are more commonly found on Gotland and in Estonia which lead me to conclude that these could have been imported by Gotlandic individuals on their travels east.

For the past decades, the Swedish public’s payment habits have changed, where the majority of the public has abandoned the old way of making payments, using cash, and instead opted for more modern payment solutions, digital money. The difference between cash and digital money is that cash is physical and only issued by the Riksbank, whereas digital money is created by and stored on accounts at commercial banks. The question of what role the state should have on the payment market is an important point of discussion. But it is not categorically a new question; the Swedish government is tackling essentially the same problem today as it has been doing many times before. Today’s problem is to some extent however manifested in a different way. During the 20th century, discussions were held whether or not the Riksbank should have the exclusive right to issue banknotes. It was considered unnecessary, inappropriate and dangerous. The idea that the Riksbank could cover the entire economy’s need for banknotes was, according to the commercial banks, unreasonable. Nonetheless, in 1904 the exclusive right became fait accompli; the government intervened and gave the Riksbank the banknote monopoly. We are now finding ourselves facing a similar situation, where there is a difference of opinion regarding the Riksbank’s role on the payment market. It is therefore nothing new, but rather an expected task for the government, and thus the central bank, to analyze major changes and draw conclusions from them. The problem is essentially about cash being phased out by digital means of payment. In order to therefore solve the problem, the Riksbank has started a project to investigate whether or not the Riksbank should issue digital cash to the Swedish public, what the Riksbank calls an e-krona. To introduce an e-krona would be a major step, but for the public to not have access to a government alternative, seeing as cash usage is declining, is also a major step. No decision has been made yet regarding whether the e-krona will be introduced on the market or not. A decision that however has been made, is that the Riksbank is now working on building an e-krona to develop and assess the technique. Nonetheless, an introduction would undoubtedly have consequences for both the Riksbank and the commercial banks, which ultimately means it would have effects on the economy as a whole. What about regulatory aspects; is the Riksbank even allowed to issue an e-krona under current legislation? The answer is affirmative, to a certain extent. There are furthermore many other uncertainties regarding how an e-krona would affect the economy; the Riksbank does not fully answer many of the system issues in its project reports. The question of whether or not it even is up to the Riksbank to make a decision on the matter of an introduction is also questioned by the author in the thesis.