Submitted by Jaqueline Silva (jtas29@gmail.com) on 2014-12-12T19:37:44Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Dissertação-Karime Chaibue-2013.pdf: 3935109 bytes, checksum: a2c033dafd41bae3cefd7f2936d911b8 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Jaqueline Silva (jtas29@gmail.com) on 2014-12-16T09:24:32Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Dissertação-Karime Chaibue-2013.pdf: 3935109 bytes, checksum: a2c033dafd41bae3cefd7f2936d911b8 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-16T09:24:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Dissertação-Karime Chaibue-2013.pdf: 3935109 bytes, checksum: a2c033dafd41bae3cefd7f2936d911b8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-10-11 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The present work consists of a descriptive analysis of the Brazilian sign language (Libras) under the theoretical perspectives of functional, cognitive and typological linguistics, along with a discussion on a linguistic universal that has been considered by Greenberg (1966) as an absolute – a feature shared by all languages around the world – namely, that “all the languages make a distinction between Noun and Verb” (GREENBERG, 1966). The main goal of the research is to confront the analysis of libras with the existing typological findings on this so-called absolute universal, in order to investigate the degree to which such universal can be easily applicable to sign languages (SL) as well, or whether the SL data can interfere with the “absolute universal” status of the distinction between the lexical categories Noun and Verb. The research is a qualitative report on a case study based on linguistic data. The participants of the research were five deaf adults fluent in Libras, from different parts of Brazil. The database for the research consisted of free narratives in Libras on varied themes, recorded in video, plus a sociolinguistic questionnaire. The theoretical framework adopted for the analysis includes cognitive, functional and typological studies on the categories Noun and Verb in oral languages (OL), such as Givón (2001), Schachter and Shopen (2007), Langacker (1997,2008), Praça (2007); and in SL, mainly, Quadros and Karnopp (2004), Salles et al. (2007), Zeshan (2002), Pizzio (2011), Lima (2012). The analysis of the data has demonstrated an inconsistency with regard to the parameter Movement as the distinctive element for the establishment of Noun and Verb as lexical categories in Libras. It has also shown that certain criteria considered distinctive for such categories in OL are not necessarily adequate for an analysis of SL data, and that such inadequacy may be related to the specificities of each language modality. The present work hopes to contribute for a broader understanding on the cognitive and functional factors involved in the categorization of Nouns and Verbs in the languages of the world, both Oral and Signed. / O presente trabalho é composto de uma análise descritiva da língua de sinais brasileira (libras), sob as perspectivas teóricas da linguística funcional, cognitiva e da tipologia linguística. O objetivo da pesquisa é o de discutir sobre um universal linguístico considerado absoluto por Greenberg (1966) - um traço compartilhado por todas as línguas do mundo. O universal em questão é “todas as línguas fazem distinção entre Nome e Verbo” (GREENBERG, 1966). Pretende-se, mediante a análise de dados da libras, confrontar os estudos tipológicos existentes sobre universais linguísticos absolutos, investigar a aplicabilidade de universais linguísticos às línguas de sinais (LS) e apontar como os dados da libras podem interferir no status de “absoluto” do universal linguístico sobre a distinção entre Nome e Verbo. Esta pesquisa apresenta as características de uma pesquisa qualitativa e do estudo de caso como método de coletas de dados. Os participantes da pesquisa foram cinco surdos adultos de diferentes regiões do Brasil. Os instrumentos da pesquisa foram narrativas livres enunciadas em libras, de temas variados, registradas em vídeos, e um questionário sociolinguístico. A análise de dados considera alguns estudos realizados sobre as categorias Nome e Verbo em línguas orais (LO): Givón (2001), Schachter e Shopen (2007), Langacker (1997, 2008), Praça (2007); e em LS: Quadros e Karnopp (2004), Salles et al. (2007), Zeshan (2002), Pizzio (2011), Lima (2012). Percebe-se em nosso corpus uma inconsistência do parâmetro movimento como elemento distintivo das categorias Nome e Verbo na libras, certas inaplicabilidades de alguns critérios distintivos nas LO para tais categorias nas LS, e a necessidade de considerar vários tipos de critérios e a especificidade da modalidade na análise de dados da libras. A contribuição desta pesquisa é a discussão de um universal considerado absoluto, apontando para a possibilidade de se entender as categorias Nome e Verbo sob uma visão mais ampla e contextualizada.

Submitted by Erika Demachki (erikademachki@gmail.com) on 2015-04-16T18:43:41Z No. of bitstreams: 4 Dissertação - Hildomar José de Lima - 2012 - parte 01.pdf: 17636865 bytes, checksum: 63ae351f343d1e51b8ca2adf1fa77206 (MD5) Dissertação - Hildomar José de Lima - 2012 - parte 02.pdf: 17664525 bytes, checksum: a18f77e197cf968856a3b6b1fc38c05e (MD5) Dissertação - Hildomar José de Lima - 2012 - parte 03.pdf: 6233184 bytes, checksum: 29e83f0ddcf2254bc34460774359d078 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Erika Demachki (erikademachki@gmail.com) on 2015-04-16T18:45:15Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 4 Dissertação - Hildomar José de Lima - 2012 - parte 01.pdf: 17636865 bytes, checksum: 63ae351f343d1e51b8ca2adf1fa77206 (MD5) Dissertação - Hildomar José de Lima - 2012 - parte 02.pdf: 17664525 bytes, checksum: a18f77e197cf968856a3b6b1fc38c05e (MD5) Dissertação - Hildomar José de Lima - 2012 - parte 03.pdf: 6233184 bytes, checksum: 29e83f0ddcf2254bc34460774359d078 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-16T18:45:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 4 Dissertação - Hildomar José de Lima - 2012 - parte 01.pdf: 17636865 bytes, checksum: 63ae351f343d1e51b8ca2adf1fa77206 (MD5) Dissertação - Hildomar José de Lima - 2012 - parte 02.pdf: 17664525 bytes, checksum: a18f77e197cf968856a3b6b1fc38c05e (MD5) Dissertação - Hildomar José de Lima - 2012 - parte 03.pdf: 6233184 bytes, checksum: 29e83f0ddcf2254bc34460774359d078 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-11-09 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The objective of this paper is to analyze some ‘morphic’ and semantic-syntactic properties that allow us to define Noun and Verb in Brazilian Sign Language (BSL). It is based on a contemporary approach of linguistic analysis named functional-cognitive (Croft e Cruse, 2004; Fauconnier e Turnner, 1998, 2008; Givón, 2001; Langacker, 1987, 1990, 1991, 2008 e Taylor, 2002). In this perspective, a linguistic analysis asserts that the code should be regarded as dynamic and likely to suffer changes that come from the speaking community and the universe, never as an immutable entity. In this way, this research bases itself on the fact that in BSL, the processes of cognitive nature and discursive-pragmatic nature motivate the distribution of such linguistic code in terms of categories. The data analysis is done in two distinct moments. First, we showed analysis observations concerning those signs in BSL that are related to Nouns and Verbs in Brazilian Portuguese (BP), that is, we worked with nominal notions and verbal notions based on the prototypical semantic characteristics proposed by Givón (2001). At this stage, it was possible to link the prototypical semantic characteristics that are correlated to Verbs and Nouns in BP. Afterwards, we analyzed the grammatical criteria that are typical of the language being studied based on bigger constructions. In such analyses, we verified that a first criterion to identifying a contrast between verbal and nominal notions, in BSL, was semantic feature dynamicity, which separates dynamic events/activities from entities/states more stable in time. / Este trabalho objetiva analisar algumas propriedades ‘mórficas’ e sintático-semânticas que nos permitam definir as categorias lexicais Nome e Verbo na Língua de Sinais Brasileira (LSB). Fundamenta-se em uma abordagem contemporânea de análise linguística denominada Cognitivo-funcional (Croft e Cruse, 2004; Fauconnier e Turnner, 1998, 2008; Givón, 2001; Langacker, 1987, 1990, 1991, 2008 e Taylor, 2002). Nessa perspectiva, uma análise linguística implica que se considere o código como dinâmico e passível de mudanças advindas da relação entre comunidade falante e o universo, jamais como uma entidade imutável. Dessa forma, esta pesquisa parte do pressuposto de que na LSB os processos de natureza cognitiva e de natureza pragmático-discursiva motivam a distribuição do código linguístico em estudo em termos de categorias. Este trabalho envolveu pesquisa de campo, com dados coletados especialmente para esta investigação, através de narrativas de surdos adultos usuários de LSB. A análise dos dados se dá em dois momentos distintos. Primeiramente, explicitamos observações de análise sobre aqueles sinais em LSB que se correlacionam com Nome e os que se correlacionam com Verbo no Português do Brasil (PB), ou seja, trabalhamos com noções nominais e noções verbais com base nas características semânticas prototípicas propostas por Givón (2001). Nesta etapa foi possível traçar as características semânticas prototípicas daqueles sinais que se correlacionam com Verbos e Nomes no PB. Em seguida, analisamos critérios gramaticais internos à língua em estudo a partir de construções maiores. Nesta análise verificou-se que um primeiro critério para a identificação de um contraste entre noções verbais e nominais, na LSB, foi o traço semântico de dinamicidade, que separa eventos/ações, dinâmicos, de entidades/estados, mais estáveis no tempo.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2018-08-15T13:39:49Z No. of bitstreams: 1 denisepereirarebelloviglioni.pdf: 449797292 bytes, checksum: a96a29c5ad3e8f0c553fd192c2ea22bb (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2018-08-15T14:18:00Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 denisepereirarebelloviglioni.pdf: 449797292 bytes, checksum: a96a29c5ad3e8f0c553fd192c2ea22bb (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-15T14:18:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 denisepereirarebelloviglioni.pdf: 449797292 bytes, checksum: a96a29c5ad3e8f0c553fd192c2ea22bb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-04-06 / O desenvolvimento deste projeto considera o ensino do português nas escolas públicas brasileiras; o trabalho com a gramática normativa, que tem apresentado variações de perspectivas; a atuação de docentes, divididos entre ensinar ou não gramática, como ensinar e para que ensinar; as perspectivas de gramática apresentadas em livros didáticos, e as orientações oficiais acerca do ensino de Língua Portuguesa. Ao refletir sobre essas questões e problematizá-las sob o viés da análise linguística, esta pesquisa propõe alternativas de associar o ensino de gramática às práticas discursivas sociais. Tendo como locus investigativo turma de sexto ano do ensino fundamental II de escola pública e a sala de aula de Língua Portuguesa, este projeto associa o ensino de classes de palavras, especificamente o substantivo e o adjetivo, aos gêneros textuais conto e conto parodiado com exploração da capacidade de leitura, escuta e produção textual escrita e oral do aluno. O principal objetivo deste projeto, de caráter intervencionista na sala de aula, é, partindo do gênero conto e conto parodiado, explorar a função das categorias substantivo e adjetivo na construção textual, apresentando essas classes de palavras de forma contextualizada. Para isso, reflete-se sobre como elas atuam na construção das sequências narrativas e descritivas no conto e conto parodiado, considerando os critérios mórfico, semântico e funcional, e como atuam na oralidade, através da contação de histórias, sob o aspecto pragmático. Acredita-se que contextualizar a gramática no aprendizado da língua materna, apropriando-se de práticas de análise linguística com ênfase na reflexão e no uso, faça sentido para o estudante para além da escola, criando condição de participação eficiente e consciente do indivíduo nas práticas sociais de linguagem. Para tanto, esta dissertação fundamenta-se nas perspectivas de ensino de gramática abordadas por Antunes (2014) e Neves (2002, 2015); de análise linguística com Franchi (1991), Geraldi (1997, 2010, 2014), Mendonça (2006) e Bezerra e Reinaldo (2013); de análise do ensino de classes de palavras por Pinilla (2007), Perini (2001, 2006) e Bagno (2011); de gêneros textuais com Schneuwly & Dolz (2004); da metodologia da pesquisa-ação com Thiollent (2006), Desroche (2006), Morin (2004) e Elliott (1997) e de práticas de análise linguística em livros didáticos com Sigiliano & Silva (2017). A aplicação da intervenção, com princípios da sequência didática, e os dados de produções escritas e orais dos alunos revelaram avanços no tocante à apropriação do gênero conto e conto parodiado e do uso das classes de palavras substantivo e adjetivo para a construção de sequências narrativas e descritivas, confirmando a hipótese inicial de que o ensino da gramática contextualizada e reflexiva, percorrendo atividades linguísticas, epilinguísticas e metalinguísticas contribua para um aprendizado que proporcione ao aluno maior habilidade em suas práticas linguísticas escolares e não escolares. / The development of this project considers the teaching of Portuguese in Brazilian public schools; the work with normative grammar, which has presented a range of perspectives; the performance of teachers, divided on the issue of teaching grammar or not, how to teach and what to teach; the perspectives of grammar presented in didactic books, and the official guidelines on the teaching of Portuguese language. By reflecting on these issues and problematizing them under the bias of linguistic analysis, this research proposes alternatives to associate grammar teaching with social discursive practices. Having as the investigative locus sixth grade class of Elementary school of public school and the Portuguese language classroom, this project associates the teaching of word classes, specifically the noun and the adjective, to the textual genres short story and parody short story with regard to the reading, listening, writing and speaking skills of a leaner. The main goal of this interventionist project in the classroom is, starting from the genres tale and parody short story, to explore the function of the categories noun and adjective in the construction of the textual genre, presenting such word classes in a contextualized way. In order to achieve this, it is reflected on how they act in the construction of the narrative and descriptive sequences in the short story and the parody short story, considering the morphic, semantic and functional criteria, as well as how they act in orality, through storytelling, under the pragmatic aspect. It is believed that contextualizing grammar in the learning of the mother tongue, appropriating linguistic analysis practices with an emphasis on reflection and use, makes sense for the student beyond the school, creating a condition of efficient and conscious participation of the individual in the language social practices. Therefore, this research is based on the grammar teaching perspectives addressed by Antunes (2014) and Neves (2002, 2015); linguistic analysis by Franchi (1991), Geraldi (1997, 2010, 2014), Mendonça (2006) and Bezerra and Reinaldo (2013); analysis of word classes teaching by Pinilla (2007), Perini (2001, 2006) and Bagno (2011); textual genres by Schneuwly & Dolz (2004); action-research methodology by Thiollent (2006), Desroche (2006), Morin (2004) and Elliott (1997) and also linguistic analysis practices in textbooks by Sigiliano & Silva (2017). The application of the intervention, with principles of the didactic sequence, as well as the data of the written and oral production of the students revealed advances in regards to the appropriation of the genres short story and parody short story but also the use of the word classes noun and adjective for the construction of the narrative and descriptive sequences, confirming the initial hypothesis that the contextualized and reflective grammar teaching, through linguistic, epilinguistic and metalinguistic activities, may contribute to a learning process which is able to provide the students a greater ability to their school and non-school language practices.

Collective nouns are a category of nouns that refer to a group of people or things. This group of nouns has the special characteristic that when in singular form, they can be followed by either a singular or a plural verb. This feature of collective nouns has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers and traditional grammarians, who in the last few decades have tried to explain this phenomenon by investigating different perspectives on it, thereby taking into consideration morphological, syntactic and semantic, as well as variational and discourse-specific differences (Biber et al, 1999; Levin, 2001; Depraetere, 2003). One of the main assumptions that has been suggested in the literature is that collective nouns have specific concord preferences, allowing for either a singular or a plural verb or both. Another assumption that has also been invoked is that when collective nouns are part of a complex noun phrase, as for instance in the phrase the rest of (the) society, in which the collective is part of the of-phrase, the plural tends to be used. Based on these two assumptions, the aim of this thesis is to further investigate, firstly whether a singular or a plural verb is used after expressions where a collective noun is being modified by a quantifying noun expression (e.g. the rest of, part of), secondly whether the concord preferences the collective nouns have an influence on the verbal concord and finally if there is any difference between the two main varieties of English, namely British and American English. Since this is a topic of actual language use, the methods used in corpus linguistic research are also employed in the thesis. More specifically, by looking at the instances of quantifying noun expressions modifying collective nouns as well as the frequency with which such constructions occur in two different corpora, the enTenTen13 and the GloWbE (Corpus of Global Web-Based English), the thesis seeks to answer the aforementioned questions. From the analysis of the data it was concluded that in some cases the concord preferences of the collective nouns influenced the verb form following the complex noun phrases, whereas in others these preferences did not determine the selection of the verb form. Syntactic, semantic as well as contextual factors seem to also influence the selection of the verb form. Furthermore, variational differences occurred, since in British English the plural was more often used with collective nouns that prefer the plural concord over the singular one or that are more variable in their concord patterns, whereas in American English the singular was the preferred choice in all cases.

Systems that attempt to process texts and acquire information from texts in English need to be particularly alert to noun phrases since they carry so much information. Systems, whether comprehensional or computational, may face particular difficulties when dealing with complex noun phrases. One of the decomposition patterns for noun phrases is left or right branching, which determines the semantic relations between the constituents of the combination.This degree project seeks to describe a processing model that the comprehension system employs to process difficulties. Since the minicorpus studied in this research consists of four of the peace agreements that were produced in English for Israeli and Palestinian sides of their conflicts to sign and implement, the comprehension models that were used by a non-native speaker of English are described, and then a computational model to enhance performing this task is suggested which includes using the frequencies of the combinations of the constituents in two major contemporary corpora, the Corpus of Contemporary American English and the British National Corpus, to help decide how to nest the noun phrases as either left or right branching structures, to resolve the ambiguity problem. Hyphening is also suggested as a potential strategy to avoid unwanted structural ambiguity in adjective + noun + noun combinations.

This essay studies the semantic structure of the noun dog with the help of qualia structure and adjectives that collocate with the noun. It also evaluates the idea of qualia structure and how well it works in studying the semantic structure of nouns. More specifically, the aim of this paper is to see how the information contained by the noun dog could be structured in terms of qualia structure. On a more general level the aim is also to evaluate, and add to, the idea of qualia structure as such. In order to accomplish this aim the top 100 adjectives that collocate with the noun dog were searched for in the COCA corpus (Corpus of Contemporary American English). The results were that with the help of qualia structure and some adjectives that collocate with the noun, it was possible to posit some substructures for the noun dog and create a tree that gave an overview of the semantic structure of the noun. However, some problems arose during the process making it clear where qualia structure needs improvement. This led to the discussion of the evolution of qualia structure and where the idea could be, and perhaps should be headed in the near future.

Le point de départ de cette thèse est la classe « P » (« verbes psychologiques ») du dictionnaire électronique Les Verbes français de J. Dubois et F. Dubois-Charlier, et porte plus précisément sur les verbes de sentiment. Les critères de cette classification n’étant pas toujours explicites, l’objectif est, dans un premier temps, d’en comprendre les paramètres syntactico sémantiques puis de l'affiner afin d'obtenir des classes plus petites, mais homogènes du point de vue du sentiment exprimé, et d’y intégrer les noms et / ou adjectifs morphologiquement apparentés aux verbes et partageant les mêmes propriétés syntactico-sémantique. Nos analyses, appuyées sur un corpus d’énoncés attestés, aboutissent à la caractérisation des prédicats de « nostalgie », de « regret »,de « dés)agrément » et d’« étonnement ». / The starting point of this work is “P” class (“verbes psychologiques”) of Les Verbes françaisof J. Dubois and F. Dubois-Charlier's electronic dictionary. It deals, more precisely, with feeling verbs.Because of the classification's criterions which are not that explicit, our main target is to try tounderstand their syntactic and semantic parameters, then to refine it in order to make small classes,but sharing in common the feeling expressed. Nouns and / or adjectives, morphologically connectedto verbs, and sharing the same syntactic and semantic properties, will be integrated to them. Ouranalysis, based on a large attested Corpus, lead to predicates characterization of “nostalgia”, “regret”,“annoyance” and “astonishment”.

This study is an analysis of the translation of a French text regarding the use of pesticides in agriculture. The French text has been translated into Swedish by the author of this paper. There have been some problems in producing an idiomatic translation in some cases. Some of the noun phrases, infinitival phrases and participle phrases were especially complicated to translate. The main purpose of this study is to analyse how these problems were solved in a communicative translation. The analytic framework is mainly based on the works of Eriksson (1997), Ingo (2007), Fredriksson (2011) and Säll (2004).       The French language has a tendency of using infinite phrases, participle phrases and long noun phrases. When translating into Swedish one needs to bear in mind that the finite verb, in the present and past tense, is far more used than the infinite and participle forms. Actions are for example often expressed with finite verbs in the Swedish language. When completing a main clause, you often use a subordinate clause in Swedish. In a French text it is more common to see an infinite phrase as a complement of a main clause.   Noun phrases with many words are often avoided in the Swedish language. As a result, Swedish texts can be shorter compared to French texts. The French language is also said to be more abstract than the Swedish language, because there is not so much semantic value in many of the French words compared to Swedish words. The result is that there can be more words in a French text than in the translated Swedish text. In some cases, you can omit words that are not necessary for the context.

In this dissertation, I investigate a number of interrelated developments affecting the morphosyntax of nouns in Cappadocian Greek. I specifically focus on the development of differential object marking, the loss of grammatical gender distinctions, and the neuterisation of noun inflection. My aim is to provide a diachronic account of the innovations that Cappadocian has undergone in the three domains mentioned above. !ll the innovations examined in this study have the effect of rendering the morphology and syntax of nouns in Cappadocian more like that of neuters. On account of the historical and sociolinguistic circumstances in which Cappadocian developed as well as of the superficial similarity of their outcomes to equivalent structures in Turkish, previous research has overwhelmingly treated the Cappadocian developments as instances of contact-induced change that resulted from the influence of Turkish. In this study, I examine the Cappadocian innovations from a language-internal point of view and in comparison with parallel developments attested in the other Modern Greek dialects of Asia Minor, namely Pontic, Rumeic, Pharasiot and Silliot. My comparative analysis of a wide range of dialect-internal, cross-dialectal and cross-linguistic typological evidence shows that language contact with Turkish can be identified as the main cause of change only in the case of differential object marking. On the other hand, with respect to the origins of the most pervasive innovations in gender and noun inflection, I argue that they go back to the common linguistic ancestor of the modern Asia Minor Greek dialects and do not owe their development to language contact with Turkish. I show in detail that the superficial similarity of these latter innovations’ outcomes to their Turkish equivalents in each case represents the final stage in a long series of typologically plausible, language-internal developments whose early manifestations predate the intensification of Cappadocian–Turkish linguistic and cultural exchange. These findings show that diachronic change in Cappadocian is best understood when examined within a larger Asia Minor Greek context. On the whole, they make a significant contribution to our knowledge of the history of Cappadocian and the Asia Minor Greek dialects as well as to Modern Greek dialectology more generally, and open a fresh round of discussion on the origin and development of other innovations attested in these dialects that are considered by historical linguists and Modern Greek dialectologists to be untypically Greek or contact-induced or both.

The purpose of this study is to see how second-language learners uses noun phrases in their written texts and oral speech as well as how they differ from each other. In order to answer this, the following questions have been formulated: What congruent errors are found in the noun phrases in the students' texts and oral speeches? Are there any differences in the use of noun phrases in the students' texts and oral speeches? The study is based on performance analysis, where student texts and transcribed recordings of students' oral speeches are analyzed. The result shows that congruence errors in the students' noun phrases are mostly due to the misuse of gender, definite form and numerus. The result also shows that the students had more congruence errors in the written texts, but there were similar, but fewer, mistakes in the oral speeches. This means that you cannot draw general conclusions about any differences between the written texts and the oral speeches.