The primary aim of this thesis is to defend the idea that there are ontologically collective forms of thought and action. This is to say, that there are at least some instances in which a thought or action is appropriately ascribed not to the individual members of a group, but only to the group as a whole. In chapters 2 and 4 existing attempts, primarily in analytic philosophy, to defend such phenomena by appealing to either the content, mode, or subject of intentional states are criticised. These criticisms in turn motivate an alternative understanding of subjectivity, outlined in chapters 3 and 5. This alternative draws on the phenomenological work of Dan Zahavi and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, to argue that subjectivity must be understood, firstly, as constituted by the pre-reflective self-awareness that is central to all intentional experience and, secondly, as intrinsically bodily. Finally, in chapter 6, and by drawing on Merleau-Ponty's thoughts on habituation and intersubjectivity, it is argued that it is possible to understand groups as continually in the process of developing such a form of plural bodily subjectivity through processes of group-level habituation. Overall, therefore, a radical position will be defended, which holds that not only can groups think and act in an ontologically collective sense, but that they can do so in virtue of the fact that they can achieve a certain level of phenomenal self-consciousness. However, this position will be tempered by the thought that unified self-awareness and subjectivity is a matter of degree; where to have a unified pre-reflective sense of self is to be an individual subject, groups must be understood as always in the process of developing a form of unity that is, ultimately, out of their grasp.

This research explores the development of a framework appropriate to evaluate the readiness of a university to engage with knowledge management. Many universities are evolving from traditional bureaucratic, hierarchical structures to become more flexible, adaptable, commercially viable and competitive and knowledge management is becoming increasingly important in this respect. An over view of knowledge management clarifies what the concept is, and a critical review of current frameworks and models identifies gaps and weaknesses specifically in relation to empirical testing, theoretical underpinning and a holistic approach. This framework addresses those gaps and weaknesses and draws on organisational management, strategy, structure and culture, and systems thinking to ensure a holistic approach. These key elements provide the basis upon which a knowledge management framework is developed. A Soft Systems Methodological approach with a critical dimension is used to underpin this research because enquiry into organisational problem situations is complex and unstructured, based on human activity and social systems. The framework is innovative and offers contributions to knowledge because it: - is a new development within the domain of knowledge management. (it is intended to help evaluate the readiness of universities to engage in knowledge management); - provides a new application of critical systems thinking (critical systems thinking is applied to knowledge management); - uses a new synthesis (it was developed using a synthesis of soft systems principles, knowledge management concepts, and organisational theory); - enables organisations to consider their situations in new ways (by enabling self-critique of KM readiness); - offers new insights into the domain of knowledge management by means of the comprehensive and substantial literature review that helped its development.

ABSTRACT A documentation and analysis of the impact of new technologies on the design and layout of The Star, particularly desktop publishing hardware and software, digital photography and the Internet. A broad outline of the production and editorial technology employed prior to the introduction of fourth wave in 1995 is provided to contextualise the research. A systematic visual analysis of selected pages from the 1920s to present as well as interviews with key members of staff from The Star, who have experienced the evolution of the paper first-hand, provide the primary source of information for the study. To prevent the paper from becoming too anecdotal, the organisational approach to the study of the media and theory of visual culture provide the theoretical framework. The research concludes that new technology itself has not drastically affected the design and layout of The Star over the past decade, but rather stimulated change within the organisational environment, which gradually did affected the visual appearance of the paper.

I svallvågorna efter det senaste decenniets omstruktureringar och omorganisationer har ansvaret för stora delar av innehållet i personaltjänsten inom Försvarsmakten transformerats. Detta är utgångspunkten för vår induktiva studie genom intervjuer av chefer i marinen, deras erfarenheter och förutsättningar i att kunna effektuera medarbetarsamtalets resultat i form av utvecklingsplaner. Cheferna upplever en uppsida av att medarbetarsamtalet som i stort är bra och att syftet är en ökad operativ effekt – nedsidan som framkommer mycket tydligt är bristen på beslutsmandat i förhållande till uppgifterna och leder till en ökad administrativ belastning. Genom en organisationsteoretisk referensram konstaterar studien att situationen består av kollisionen mellan personaltjänstens centralisering i förhållande till den militära linjestyrningen och deras inbördes logiker och värderingar. Om det är en medveten omsvängning eller en olycklig omständighet genom reformprogram att chefer ska lägga mer tid på personaltjänst och administration framgår inte av vår empiri. Studien konstaterar däremot att det är chefernas ansvarstagande och professionella militära värderingar som gör att fiaskot undviks men succén uteblir för personaltjänsten när de ställs inför uppgifter som de inte har förutsättningar att lösa. Vår förhoppning är att denna undersökning bidrar till ökad förståelse för chefers situation och kan utgöra ett underlag för vidare utveckling av Försvarsmaktens personaltjänst. Detta i syfte att skapa motivation och tillit till personaltjänstens processer, öka den operativa effekten och behålla Försvarsmaktens personal. / Responsibilities for the personnel services in the Swedish Armed Forces have the last decade transformed in the backwash of reorganization and restructuring. This is the outset for our thesis and the research on how executives in the Navy can execute the personal development plan as a result of staff appraisals. As authors we have had confirmation in some of ourprejudice as well as developed new knowledge. The executive’s experiences are mainlypositive and the recognitions of the staff appraisal to gain operational effect are clear. The downside is also clear in accordance with the result of our research – the magnitude of the staff appraisal is too big, take too much time and necessary mandates are missing. Our empirics do not tell us if the executive ́s extended workload on personnel service are an intentional turn or an unfortunate circumstance of New Public Management. Our conclusion is nevertheless – it is not likely to gain operative effect by executive ́s doing more admin work.

<p>This thesis is mainly directed towards readers with a basic background in Environmental or Quality Management Systems. More increasingly organisations and companies decide to work with Environmental Management Systems (EMS) and the ISO standard has ever been increasing in popularity. The advantages of the ISO standard are the flexibility it offers, the adaptability to a variety of organisations and processes.</p><p>Most literature on EMS focuses on communication but very few address the issues regarding implementation and translation of the EMS into something functional for the core activities of an organisation.</p><p>In this qualitative study the author focuses on studying the differences between organisational levels regarding working with and implementing EMS at their various levels. The theoretical frame for the study is that of new-institutionalism. Within this frame is gathered empirical data from interviews with representatives of eight larger companies or organisations, all with multiple organisational levels. Combined these interviews form a solid foundation for the study if intra- and interorganisational EMS-implementations.</p><p>The conclusion of this research indicates the participating companies translated and implemented the EMS by standardising already existing routines and methods into complementing the EMS. A side-effect of this study which lies outside the actual aim of this thesis is that companies which have built up their EMS starting at ground-level have a better implementation and communication of such EMS.</p> / <p>Det här arbetet fokuserar på<strong> </strong>läsare med en bakgrund inom miljö- och kvalitetsledningssystem.Allt fler företag bestämmer sig att arbeta med miljöledningssystem (MLS) och detta har lett till att ISO standarden ökat i popularitet, främst på grund av standardens flexibilitet vilket ses i hur enkelt standarden är att anpassa till olika företag och processer. Majoriteten av MLS-litteratur har en fokus på kommunikation men väldigt få handböcker och författare tar upp frågor i samband med den praktiska implementering och översättning av MLS när det gäller anpassa MLS till något fungerande för organisationens kärnverksamhet.</p><p>Den här kvalitativa studien fokuserar på att analysera de skillnader som finns mellan organisatoriska nivåer när det gäller deras arbete med och implementering av MLS. Studien utfördes inom den teoretiska ram av Nyinstitutionalismen och inom dessa gränser samlades empirin från åtta större företag med olika organisatoriska nivåer. Kombinationen av dessa intervjuer skapar basen för analysen av inter- och intraorganisatoriska MLS-implementeringar. Slutsatsen av den här studien visar att de organisationer som deltog översatte och implementerade deras MLS genom att anpassa pre-existerande rutinerna till att möta standardens krav. En sidoeffekt av den här studien som fanns utanför studiens ursprungliga ram är att organisationer som byggde sitt MLS från grundnivå och uppåt visade sig ha en bättre kommunikation och implementering av deras MLS.</p>

This thesis is mainly directed towards readers with a basic background in Environmental or Quality Management Systems. More increasingly organisations and companies decide to work with Environmental Management Systems (EMS) and the ISO standard has ever been increasing in popularity. The advantages of the ISO standard are the flexibility it offers, the adaptability to a variety of organisations and processes. Most literature on EMS focuses on communication but very few address the issues regarding implementation and translation of the EMS into something functional for the core activities of an organisation. In this qualitative study the author focuses on studying the differences between organisational levels regarding working with and implementing EMS at their various levels. The theoretical frame for the study is that of new-institutionalism. Within this frame is gathered empirical data from interviews with representatives of eight larger companies or organisations, all with multiple organisational levels. Combined these interviews form a solid foundation for the study if intra- and interorganisational EMS-implementations. The conclusion of this research indicates the participating companies translated and implemented the EMS by standardising already existing routines and methods into complementing the EMS. A side-effect of this study which lies outside the actual aim of this thesis is that companies which have built up their EMS starting at ground-level have a better implementation and communication of such EMS. / Det här arbetet fokuserar på läsare med en bakgrund inom miljö- och kvalitetsledningssystem.Allt fler företag bestämmer sig att arbeta med miljöledningssystem (MLS) och detta har lett till att ISO standarden ökat i popularitet, främst på grund av standardens flexibilitet vilket ses i hur enkelt standarden är att anpassa till olika företag och processer. Majoriteten av MLS-litteratur har en fokus på kommunikation men väldigt få handböcker och författare tar upp frågor i samband med den praktiska implementering och översättning av MLS när det gäller anpassa MLS till något fungerande för organisationens kärnverksamhet. Den här kvalitativa studien fokuserar på att analysera de skillnader som finns mellan organisatoriska nivåer när det gäller deras arbete med och implementering av MLS. Studien utfördes inom den teoretiska ram av Nyinstitutionalismen och inom dessa gränser samlades empirin från åtta större företag med olika organisatoriska nivåer. Kombinationen av dessa intervjuer skapar basen för analysen av inter- och intraorganisatoriska MLS-implementeringar. Slutsatsen av den här studien visar att de organisationer som deltog översatte och implementerade deras MLS genom att anpassa pre-existerande rutinerna till att möta standardens krav. En sidoeffekt av den här studien som fanns utanför studiens ursprungliga ram är att organisationer som byggde sitt MLS från grundnivå och uppåt visade sig ha en bättre kommunikation och implementering av deras MLS.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this thesis is to develop a framework for research that will lead to a “technology of foolishness”, à la James March (1972). This is done by a) analysing the nature and b) evaluating the results of case studies that employ the garbage can theory within the field of organisational decision making. The garbage can is used since it was developed to describe decision making within organised anarchies. These are organisational contexts characterised by ambiguous goals, amongs other traits. Thus, one of the aims of the theory was to describe how decisions are made in the face of goal ambiguity. In this thesis nineteen case studies that were published between 1976 and 2010 are analysed. Only studies where the garbage can theory’s components are brought to bear on the data in a significant way are included in the scope of the study. This means that data has to be structured according to the theory, or that the authors’ conclusions address the theory specifically. It was found that the case studies produce very few insights on goal ambiguity which can be put to use in developing a technology of foolishness. Based on the analysis of the nature of the garbage can theory and the studies in the sample, a new way of doing research on goal ambiguity is put forth. Based on the insights on goal ambiguity that were produced, the themes that need researching are suggested. A core discovery is that although the garbage can in used as a process theory very often, the interpretivist tools that fit within this approach are seldom used. The normative strategy that is put forth includes incorporating the role of active decision making entities into the garbage can theory, or using the garbage can theory in conjunction with a model that does provide for the role of these decision making entities. It is important to note that these entities need not and should not be subjected to the principles of rational choice theory. It is also proposed that the garbage can theory be utilised as a process theory of decision making and that theoretical tools that are appropriate to this kind of theory be used. These tools would form part of theories designed for analysing and understanding organisational narratives. Themes that need to be researched include symbolic expressions (such as metaphors), tactile or visual experiences, the role of intuition and emotional expression in decision making processes, the role of identity (that of the focal decision makers and the people he comes into contact with) and, lastly, the idea that the world is enacted, rather than having to be predicted. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis het ten doel om ʼn raamwerk vir navorsing daar te stel wat sal lei tot die ontwikkeling van ʼn ‘tegnologie vir dwase optrede’, à la James March (1972). Dit word gedoen deur a) die aard en b) die resultate van gevallestudies wat die vullisdromteorie op besluitneming in organisasies toepas, te analiseer. Die vullisdromteorie word gebruik omdat dit ontwikkel is om besluitneming in ‘georganiseerde anargieë’ te beskryf. Georganiseerde anargieë word, onder anadere, gekenmerk deur dubbelisinnige doelwitte. Dus was een van die mikpunte van die model om besluitneming te beskryf wanneer doelwitte dubbelsinnig is. In hierdie tesis word negentien gevallestudies, wat tussen 1976 en 2010 gepubliseer is, bestudeer. Slegs studies waar die komponente van die teorie beduidend in die data neerslag vind, word ingesluit by die omvang van die studie. Dit beteken dat die data volgens die komponente gestruktureer is, of dat die navorsers die evaluering van die teorie eksplisiet by hulle konklusies insluit. Die bevinding is dat die gevallestudies baie min insigte rondom doelwitdubbelsinnigheid bied wat binne die raamwerk van ʼn tegnologie vir dwase optrede pas. Op grond van die analise van die oorhoofse eienskappe van beide die vullisdromteorie en die studies in die steekproef, word daar ’n nuwe normatiewe raamwerk vir die benadering tot navorsing omtrent doelwitdubbelsinnigheid voorgestel. Op grond van die insigte omtrent doelwitdubbelsinnigheid wat wel deeluitmaak van die resultate, word temas vir navorsing voorgestel. ʼn Kern-ontdekking is dat ofskoon die vullisdrom gereëld as ʼn prosesteorie aangewend word, die interpretivistiese instrumente wat tot hierdie benadering hoort, selde gebruik word. Die nuwe normatiewe strategie is dat die vullisdromteorie as sodanig aangepas word dat dit voorsiening maak vir aktiewe besluitnemende entiteite. ʼn Ander werkbare opsie is om die vullisdromteorie te same met ’n teorie wat wel vir hierdie entiteite voorsiening maak, aan te wend. Hierdie entiteite hoef en behoort egter nie gemodelleer te word volgens ’n rasionele keuse teorie nie. Daar word ook voorgestel dat waar die vullisdromteorie aangewend word, dit as ’n prosesteorie vir besluitneming aangewend word en dat teoretiese instrumente wat binne die raamwerk van prosesteorieë pas, benut word. Hierdie instrumente sluit metodes en teorieë wat geskik is vir die analisering en verstaan van narratiewe in organisasies in. Temas wat nagevors moet word is simboliese uitdrukkings (soos metafore), ervarings wat tas- en sigsintuie insluit, die rol van intuïsie en emosionele uitdrukking in die besluitnemingproses, die rol van identiteit (van die fokale besluitnemer sowel as ander entiteite met wie hy in kontak kom) en, laastens, die idee dat die wêreld geskep word deur aksies, eerder as dat dit voorspel hoef te word.

The relationship between politicians and civil servants is ambiguous and potentially problematic in democratic terms. The aim of the thesis is to examine this relationship in the Swedish core executive, Regeringskansliet. More specifically, the analysis emphasises the respective role expectations of the two groups when interacting with each other. The thesis is based on two extensive qualitative interview studies with politicians and senior civil servants, one carried out in the early 1980’s and one undertaken more recently. Hence it also offers an opportunity to analyse whether these expectations have changed or remained stable during the last decades. The findings reveal that the role expectations of politicians and civil servants to a high extent correspond, and have remained relatively stable over time. The relationship between politicians and civil servants is based on norms such as (conditional) trust, delegation and yet relatively close interaction. If so, politicians are unloaded by the civil service in order to handle their external responsibilities. Although relatively informal, a passive hierarchy of roles ensures the superiority of politicians and more specifically of the minister. Civil servants adapt to roles taken by politicians, although providing guidance to the politicians on how to behave in office. The division of labour is not based on the different tasks performed in the policy-making process. Instead, politicians assume responsibility for all actions and decisions – also those undertaken by the civil servants – within the ministries, while civil servants offer politicians protection and security. Taken together these results indicate that the institutionalised norms that surround the relationship between politicians and civil servants are highly powerful. Nevertheless, the thesis also reveals tendencies towards a departure from these norms, suggesting that this relationship is to some extent fragile and exposed to various attempts at reform.

One of the foremost reasons for the success of the Northern Irish Peace Process has been the ability of the national leadership of the Provisional Republican Movement to bring the majority of their membership away from the armed campaign and towards the acceptance of peaceful politics. This dissertation analyses how they were able to achieve this. This is carried out by considering the processes of the four major splits in modern day Irish republicanism from 1969 to 1997. Each split was analysed so as to derive why the split took place and why one side was more successful than the other in the aftermath. The cases were used to test a stage-based process model of split designed by the author. The data from thirty-eight semi-structured interviews were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). This analysis treated the three Provisional splits as three micro-processes within the macro-process of Provisional Republican involvement in the ‘Troubles', as it did the two Official splits with respect to the Official macro-process of involvement. The results of the analysis showed that the success of the later Provisional leadership was significantly tied to their method of changing strategies, tactics and policies one step at a time rather than by attempting to implement a variety of substantial changes within a short space of time as the leadership of the 1960s endeavoured to. This research outlines how the acceptance of peaceful politics for a terrorist organisation is a gradual stage-based process and that in order to be successful the significant changes must be implemented in a patient manner.

Modern juristic persons often are powerful entities and they play an influential role in society. Their activities are often accompanied by serious transgressions that have a severely detrimental impact on human beings and their environment. The effective prosecution of juristic persons is therefore necessary. The juridical foundations of the liability of juristic persons are, however, one of the most controversial issues in criminal law theory. Individualistic theories postulate that juristic persons are merely collections of individuals. The conduct and fault of individuals constituting a juristic person must therefore form the basis of the criminal liability of the juristic person. In the United States, for instance, the foundation for the criminal liability of corporations on federal level is vicarious liability. Another individualistic model (mostly associated with English common law jurisdictions) is the so–called doctrine of identification. Only the conduct of individuals who are regarded as the 'directing minds' of the organisation may be attributed to the organisation. These approaches deny the complex structures and decision making processes that exist especially in big corporate entities. According to realistic theories juristic persons are entities which are not dependant on their composite members. Each juristic person has its own unique personality. The culture and ethos of a juristic person influence the conduct of individuals attached to it as well as the degree in which the juristic person abides by the law. The identity of a corporation can be established by investigating the internal structure thereof. The existence of monitoring mechanisms and educational programmes within the organization, as well as the degree to which the organisation condones or disapproves of unlawful conduct, are some of the factors which may be indicative of the corporate culture. This approach is a development of the late twentieth century and has recently been adopted in the legislation of some foreign legal systems, most notably Australia. Section 332(1) of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 provides the basis for the criminal liability of juristic persons in South Africa. In essence the conduct and fault of functionaries (and sometimes even outsiders) are attributed to the juristic person. In terms of the provisions of the Criminal Procedure Act juristic persons may only be fined upon conviction. This approach reflects the individualistic view of corporate criminal liability. In this study recommendations are made for the purpose of improving the South African law in this regard so as to reflect a more realistic approach. The recommendations are based on an examination of realistic models proposed by legal and social theorists and legislation adopted by foreign countries which are based on these theories. It is also recommended that more sentencing options must be made available to bring about the restructuring of corporations which have committed crimes. / Thesis (LL.D.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.