Gauss introduit la notion de congruence en 1801 dans les Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. L'historiographie classique relie le plus souvent l'histoire de cette notion au développement de la théorie des nombres algébriques, une histoire construite autour d'un groupe de mathématiciens allemands. Pourtant, d'autres auteurs ont publié des travaux en lien avec les congruences dans la première moitié du XIXe siècle, et ce dans des perspectives différentes. Dans ce travail, nous nous proposons de rendre compte de ces dernières en nous concentrant sur les travaux de la scène française publiés entre 1801 et 1850. À partir d'une première lecture globale des textes de notre corpus, nous montrons d'abord que les congruences n'y ont pas connu un développement autonome mais ont été étudiées dans un lien étroit avec les équations. Toutefois, les différentes pratiques rencontrées sont très variées, que ce soit du point de vue des méthodes, des outils en jeu ou des configurations disciplinaires en jeu. Nous étudions ensuite plusieurs travaux arithmétiques d'Euler, de Lagrange, de Legendre et de Gauss afin de comprendre certaines origines de cette activité multiforme mise en évidence dans notre première partie. Nous nous concentrons enfin sur les travaux de deux auteurs de notre corpus, Louis Poinsot et Augustin Louis Cauchy, qui ont joué un rôle important dans l'élaboration et la diffusion de résultats et de pratiques liés aux congruences, même s'ils ont pratiquement disparu des histoires de la théorie des nombres publiées au XXe siècle.

Bakgrund: En av de vanligaste orsakerna till att människor söker sig till sjukvården är smärta. Det är ett symptom vid många sjukdomar vilket påverkar patienternas livskvalitet. Upplevelsen av smärta är subjektiv och ska behandlas då otillräcklig smärtbehandling orsakar lidande hos patienten med potentiella skadliga fysiologiska och psykologiska konsekvenser. Sjuksköterskan har en viktig roll i hanteringen av patienternas smärtbehandling och deras främsta uppgift är att tillgodose patientens omvårdnadsbehov. Bedömning av smärta är väsentligt för att uppnå en god och effektiv smärtbehandling. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie var att utforska sjuksköterskors kunskap och attityd relaterat till akut smärta. Metod: Litteraturöversikt. Resultat: Sjuksköterskans kunskaper angående smärtbehandling är bristfällig. Det fanns rädslor och felaktiga uppfattningar kring opioider som begränsade användandet. Sjuksköterskan verkade i regel underskatta sanningshalten i patientens uppgivna smärta och tyckte att deras bedömning kring patientens smärta var mer riktig än patientens subjektiva upplevelse. Slutsats: Sjuksköterskornas kunskap om smärtbehandling var bristfällig. Sjuksköterskor gjorde en egen uppskattning av patientens smärta istället för att lyssna till patientens subjektiva upplevelse. Klinisk betydelse: Studien kan väcka tankar och funderingar hos sjuksköterskan eller sjuksköterskestudenten som får denne att reflektera över sin egen attityd och värderingar gentemot smärtbehandling. Det är viktigt att sjuksköterskan är medveten om hur förhållningssätt påverkar bedömningen i omvårdnaden. / Background: One of the most common reasons why people seek health care is related to pain. Pain is a symptom of many diseases and it effects the quality of life for the patients. Experiencing pain is subjective and should be treated, insufficient treatment causes the patient suffering and that can lead to physiological and psychological consequences. The nurse has an important role in the management of the patients‟ pain treatment since it is their main assignment to nurse the patient. Assessment of pain is key to achieve good and effective pain treatment. Aim: The purpose of this study was to explore nurses´ knowledge and attitude related to acute pain. Method: Literature overview. Result: The nurses´ knowledge regarding pain management were inadequate The limited use of opiods was related to fear and faulty views. The nurses underestimated the truthfulness in the patients assessment. The attitude reflected that the nurses´ view of assessment was more accurate than the patients own subjective perception of pain. Conclusion: The overall picture of the results indicated that nurses' knowledge about pain relief was insufficient. There were fears and erroneous beliefs about opioids that limit their use. Perception of pain differed between the ideal picture from research and the applied clinical setting. Nurses seemed to be afraid of the side effects of opioids, and they were afraid that patients would develop an addiction. In general, the nurses´ attitude seemed to be that, in a clinical setting, the nurses´ professional assessment of a patient's perception was more reliable than the patient's expression of their perception of pain. Relevance to clinical practice: The study can enlighten the nurse or the nurse student and get them to reflect about their own attitude and values regarding pain treatment. It is important that nurses are aware that their approach effects their assessment in their nursing.

Migrän är en relativt vanlig kronisk och neurologisk sjukdom, som vanligtvis kännetecknas av en återkommande och episodisk huvudvärk vilket också kan inkludera illamående, ljus- och ljudkänslighet. Syftet var att beskriva upplevelser av migrän och dess påverkan på personers dagliga liv. En allmän litteraturstudie gjordes genom systematiska databassökningar. Nio kvalitativa artiklar valdes ut som matchade med studiens syfte, vilka analyserades med utgångspunkt från innehållsanalys. Databearbetningen resulterade i tre huvudkategorier: Strategi och förhållningssätt, Känslan av migrän samt Känslan av bemötande; och sex subkategorier: Förnekelse, Förebyggande, Smärta, Påverkan, Bemötande och Förståelse. Resultatet visade att migrän hade en negativ, känslomässig påverkan på de drabbade där smärtan samt känslan att inte bli tagen på allvar av samhället, anhöriga samt vården var återkommande. Okunskap och ifrågasättande från vårdpersonal drabbade personer som led av migrän med vård som inte var individanpassad. Sökandet efter kunskap för att förstå sjukdomen migrän bättre var centralt hos de migrändrabbade. Konklusionen av studien var ett behov av vidare kvalitativ forskning, spridning av kunskap samt uppmärksamhet om migrän, vilket är rekommenderat för att öka förståelsen för personer som lider av migrän. / Migraine is a relatively common chronic neurological disorder, characterized by a reoccurring episodic headache which also can include nausea, photophobia and phonophobia. The study aimed to describe experiences of migraine and its impact on migraine sufferers’ daily lives. An overview was done through systematic database searches. Nine qualitative articles were found that matched the study’s aim, which were analyzed with the use of content analysis. This resulted in three categories: Strategy and approach, Feeling of migraine and Feeling of treatment; in addition to six subcategories: Denial, Prevention, Pain, Impact, Treatment and Understanding. The results showed that migraine had a negative, emotional impact on the sufferers where pain and the feeling of not being taken seriously by society, kindred and the healthcare system were recurring. Ignorance and negligence from healthcare providers resulted in migraine sufferers not receiving person-centered care. The search for knowledge by the sufferers was central to better understand their own migraine. The study concluded that more qualitative research, spread of knowledge and acknowledgement of migraine are recommended to improve the understanding of migraine sufferers.

Bakgrund: Urininkontinens innebär ofrivilligt urinläckage och är ett folkhälsopro- blem i Sverige. Det är ett tillstånd som främst drabbar kvinnor och äldre. Syftet: Att beskriva kvinnors upplevelse av att leva med urininkontinens. Metod: Litteraturö- versikt, där kvalitativa artiklar analyserades enligt Fribergs femstegsmodell och sammanställdes till ett resultat. Datasökningarna utfördes i Medline och CINAHL, där elva artiklar valdes ut. Resultat: Består av tre huvudteman; maktlöshet, utan- förskap och acceptans som växte fram från följande subteman: förlorad kontroll, ett begränsat liv, en känsla av skam, negativa möten inom vården, anpassning och en del av livet. Kvinnor upplever urininkontinens som en begränsning i vardagen. Kvinnor accepterar sin livssituation och pratar inte öppet om urininkontinens då det upplevs som skamligt och tabubelagt. Kvinnor upplever att det är lättare att prata om sin urininkontinens om sjukvården tar upp och samtalar kring urininkontinens. Slutsats: Det behövs en ökad kunskap och förståelse i samhället och inom vården för kvinnor med urininkontinens. Eftersom kvinnor inte själva talar öppet om sin urininkontinens är det viktigt att bedriva vidare forskning kring samspelet mellan vårdpersonal och kvinnor med urininkontinens. / Background: Urinary incontinence causes involuntary urinary leakage and is a public health problem in Sweden. It is a condition that primarily affects women and the elderly. Aim: To describe women's experience of living with urinary inconti- nence. Method: Literature review, where qualitative articles were analyzed accor- ding to Friberg's five-step model and compiled into a result. Data searches were con- ducted in Medline and CINAHL, where eleven articles were selected. Result: Consi- sts of three main themes; powerlessness, exclusion and acceptance that emerged from the following subthemes: lost control, a limited life, a sense of shame, negative meetings in health care, adaptation and a part of life. Women experience urinary incontinence as a limitation in everyday life. Women accept their life situation and do not talk openly about urinary incontinence because it is felt as shameful and ta- boo-coated. Women also find it easier to talk about their urinary incontinence if the healthcare brings up and talks about urinary incontinence. Conclusion: There is a need for increased knowledge and understanding in society and in the care of women with urinary incontinence. Since women do not speak openly about their urinary in- continence, it is important to conduct further research on the interaction between healthcare and women with urinary incontinence.

Africa is facing many challenges which range from underdevelopment to high poverty levels. Although Africa is richly endowed with natural resources, the continent continues to be a source of raw material for the North. This state of affairs cannot be allowed to continue indefinitely. The high level of debt owed to multilateral organisations compounds the challenge by limiting investment inflows. Through the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), the African Union (AU) has the potential to stimulate growth and development on the continent in pursuit of the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Undoubtedly, the African Union’s NEPAD faces many challenges itself. The benefits of the multilateral trade regime will only become freely available if factors such as the negative multiplier effects associated with the accomplishment of the ideal of African integration and market access, could be mitigated. The success of NEPAD is not a given for Africa and necessitates visionary leadership. It has to be earned and as a matter of course will involve some sacrifices. Africa will have to mobilise intra-continental investment to leverage Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The point of departure of this research study is that the NEPAD initiative is an African programme which must be led by Africans themselves, especially the intelligentsia. The Africans in the diaspora also constitute a valuable source of capacity to implement NEPAD. NEPAD promotes the participation of Africa in global affairs in pursuit of the African Renaissance. It is imperative that the architects of NEPAD listen to the concerns being raised by its opponents and continuously engage the Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) and the intended beneficiary society. It should be noted that the private sector can partner with governments in supporting the objectives of NEPAD. There is a need to harmonise policies of different AU member states to give effect to regional cooperation and integration. Regional integration can enhance the mobilisation of resources through economies of scale that will position Africa to penetrate global markets and to attract direct foreign investment. Globalisation itself should not be viewed as a threat, but as presenting new economic challenges and potential opportunities for regional integration. It is time that the Africans their own agenda within Africa. Africans must rise jointly to this occasion and emancipate themselves from dependence associated with underdevelopment and poverty. Africa has the potential and the capacity to succeed through the effective implementation of NEPAD. The time for Africa is now. / Thesis (PhD (Public Affairs))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / School of Public Management and Administration (SPMA) / unrestricted

This thesis project set out to find and implement a comfortable way to explore vast, multidimensional datasets using interactive multiscale visualizations to combat the ever-growing information overload that the digitized world is generating. Starting at the realization that even for people not working in the fields of information visualization and data science the size of interesting datasets often outgrows the capabilities of standard spreadsheet applications such as Microsoft Excel. This project established requirements for a system to overcome this problem. In this thesis report, we describe existing solutions, related work, and in the end designs and implementation of a working tool for initial data exploration that utilizes novel multiscale visualizations to make complex coherences comprehensible and has proven successful in a practical evaluation with two case studies.

Background: Sleep is one of mankind's basic needs and important for the experience of health, as well as essential for the patient's ability to recover. Lack of sleep has a negative effect on the ability to recover from the consequences of illness. Patients states that they have a negative quality of sleep during hospital stay. Aim: The aim of this study was to describe factors that influencing the night sleep of patients during hospital stay. Method: An overview of the literature was performed. Six quantitative, three qualitative and two mixed-method studies were included. Results: Two main categories emerged, which were; Environmental factors and physical- and psychological factors. The result showed that patients experienced environmental factor such as noise and lights, comfort and routines. Physical- and psychological factors experienced by patients was symptoms, anxiety and thoughts and also nurse's bedside manners. Conclusion: Nurses bedside manners have significant importance for patient's ability to experience a quality sleep. The result shows that factors affecting patients sleep are possible to influence and alter in order to enable best possible sleep for patients during hospital stay.

Bakgrund: Vårdmiljön på sjukhus innehåller ett antal olika faktorer, såväl fysiska som mellanmänskliga, vilka i olika hög grad kan påverka patienters möjligheter till återhämtning såväl positivt som negativt. Det kan handla om färgen på väggarna och möjligheten till enkelrum, lika väl som sjuksköterskans bemötande av patienten. Syfte: Att skapa en översikt över vårdmiljöns betydelse för patientens återhämtning på sjukhus. Metod: En allmän litteraturöversikt. Tolv vårdvetenskapliga artiklar analyserades. Nio med kvalitativ ansats och tre med kvantitativ ansats. Resultat: Vårdmiljön kan främja patienternas återhämtning, men den kan likaväl hämma återhämtningen. Faktorer som inverkade på patienternas återhämtning redovisas i fyra teman: Den omgivande miljöns betydelse för patientens återhämtning, vårdmiljöns inverkan på patientens sömnkvalitet, hur inredningens utformning kan påverka patientens återhämtning och det mellanmänskliga mötets betydelse för patientens återhämtning. Här framkommer att utsikt genom fönstret, störande ljud, en hemlik inredning samt kommunikationen mellan patienten och sjuksköterskan är faktorer som på ett eller annat vis påverkar patienternas återhämtning. Slutsats: Patienternas upplevelser tydliggjorde att vårdmiljön, såväl den fysiska som den mellanmänskliga, hade en stor inverkan på återhämtningen. / Background: The healthcare environment at a hospital contains a few different factions, physical aswell as interpersonal. Some of which can deeply impact the patients road to recovery for both good and bad, such as the color of the interior and the potential access to a secluded room. Also the treatment recevied by the nurses plays a big part. Aim: To create a map of the healthcare environments impact for the recovery of the patient. Method: A general literature-overview. Twelve scientifically based articles on healthcare. Nine with qualitative approach and three with quantitative approach. Results: The healthcare environment can promote patients recovery, but it can also inhibit the patients recovery. Factors that influenced the recovery is accounted for in four themes: The surrounding environments meaning for the patients recovery, the healthcare environments impact on the patients sleep quality, the way the interior has been layed out and the interpersonal meeting can also aid the patients recovery. Things like a view out of a window, noises, a home-like interior aswell as communication between the nurses and the patient plays a big part on how the patients is recovering. Conclusions: The patients experience clarified that the healthcare environment, the physical aswell as the interpersonal treatment had a big impact on the recovery of the patient.

SammanfattningDe flesta företag som arbetar med produktutveckling idag använder sig av någon form avproduktutvecklings-process. Även om en process är mycket användbar, så garanterar inte den enframgångsrik produktutveckling. En av de viktigaste aspekterna i projektarbete ochproduktutveckling är kommunikation – hur projektmedlemmar utbyter information medvarandra. En framgångsrik produktutveckling är svår att uppnå utan effektivprojektkommunikation.Temat för den här uppsatsen är baserad på denna bakgrund. De frågor som ska besvaras är: Vilkaproblem finns i produktutvecklings-projekten idag? Hur är de relaterade till kommunikation?Hur kan kommunikationen förbättras för att lösa dessa problem? För att svara på dessa frågor haren fallstudie på produktutvecklings-företaget ITT Water and Wastewater genomförts. Genom 37intervjuer har data rörande företagets kommunikationsmetoder och utvecklingsprocess insamlats.Dessutom har teorier på samma studerats. Tillsammans bildar de basen till examensarbetetsanalys.Den empiriska datainsamlingen visade på problem i utvecklingsprocessen: brister i utvärderingarav projekt, långa utvecklingstider, projekt med för svag marknadsorientering och beslut tagnabaserade på otillräcklig information. De två sistnämnda har identifierats att vara beroende avkommunikationen i processen.Vidare visade studien att en projektöversikt skulle lösa dessa problem. Som resultat harförfattarna skapat en utformning av denna projektöversikt. Fastän brister i kommunikation inte ärden enda anledningen till de identifierade problemen, tror författarna att den framtagnaprojektöversikten kommer att avstyra dem. Då det finns stora likheter i hur produktutvecklingutförs på olika företag idag, anses resultatet vara överförbart även till andra organisationer. / AbstractThe majority of companies working with new product development today are using a productdevelopment process. Although very helpful, a process will not guarantee successful productdevelopment. One of the most important aspects to consider in projects and product developmentis communication - how project members exchange information with one another. Successfulproduct development is hard to achieve without efficient project communication.This master thesis is based on the previously mentioned background. The questions to beanswered are: What problems exist within product development projects? How are these relatedto communication? How can communication be improved to solve them? To answer thesequestions, a case study at the product development company ITT Water and Waste Water wascarried out. By conducting 37 interviews, data regarding the company’s communication anddevelopment process has been collected. In addition, theories regarding project development andcommunication are researched. Together, theses constitute the basis for the thesis analysis.The empirical research showed that there indeed exist problems in the case company’sdevelopment process: a lack of project evaluation, too development times, a lack of marketorientation, and decisions being made without sufficient information. The later two where foundclosely dependent on communication.Further research showed that introducing a project overview would solve these problems. As afinal conclusion, a layout of the proposed project overview was introduced. Even thoughinsufficient communication is not believed to be the only cause for the identified problems, theauthors believe that the project overview would in part solve them. Since there are largesimilarities in how product development is carried out at different companies, the findings aremost likely transferable to other organizations.

The majority of companies working with new product development today are using a product development process. Although very helpful, a process will not guarantee successful product development. One of the most important aspects to consider in projects and product development is communication - how project members exchange information with one another. Successful product development is hard to achieve without efficient project communication. This master thesis is based on the previously mentioned background. The questions to be answered are: What problems exist within product development projects? How are these related to communication? How can communication be improved to solve them? To answer these questions, a case study at the product development company ITT Water and Waste Water was carried out. By conducting 37 interviews, data regarding the company’s communication and development process has been collected. In addition, theories regarding project development and communication are researched. Together, theses constitute the basis for the thesis analysis. The empirical research showed that there indeed exist problems in the case company’s development process: a lack of project evaluation, too development times, a lack of market orientation, and decisions being made without sufficient information. The later two where found closely dependent on communication. Further research showed that introducing a project overview would solve these problems. As a final conclusion, a layout of the proposed project overview was introduced. Even though insufficient communication is not believed to be the only cause for the identified problems, the authors believe that the project overview would in part solve them. Since there are large similarities in how product development is carried out at different companies, the findings are most likely transferable to other organizations.