This dissertation addresses the convergence of ethics, labor, aesthetics, cultural citizenship, and the circulation of knowledge among experimental electronic instrument builders in New York City and Berlin. This loosely connected group of musician-inventors engages in what I call “DIY music technology” due to their shared do-it-yourself ethos and their use of emerging and repurposed technologies, which allow for new understandings of musical invention. My ethnography follows a constellation of self-described hackers, “makers,” sound and noise artists, circuit benders, avant-garde/experimental musicians, and underground rock bands through these two cities, exploring how they push the limits of what “music” and “instruments” can encompass, while forming local, transnational, and virtual networks based on shared interests in electronics tinkering and independent sound production. This fieldwork is supplemented with inquiries into the construction of “DIY” as a category of invention, labor, and citizenship, through which I trace the term’s creative and commercial tensions from the emergence of hobbyism as a form of productive leisure to the prevailing discourse of punk rock to its adoption by the recent Maker Movement. I argue that the cultivation of the self as a “productive” cultural citizen—which I liken to a state of “permanent prototyping”—is central to my interlocutors’ activities, through which sound, self, and instrument are continually remade. I build upon the idea of “technoaesthetics” (Masco 2006) to connect the inner workings of musical machines with the personal transformations of DIY music technologists as inventors fuse their aural imaginaries with industrial, biological, environmental, and sometimes even magical imagery. Integral to these personal transformations is a challenge to corporate approaches to musical instrument making and selling, though this stance is often strained when commercial success is achieved. Synthesizing interdisciplinary perspectives from ethno/musicology, anthropology, and science and technology studies, I demonstrate that DIY music technologists forge a distinctive sense of self and citizenship that critiques, yet remains a cornerstone of, artistic production and experience in a post-digital “Maker Age.”

O presente trabalho enfoca a possibilidade de uma usucapião de patentes, uma usucapião inclusiva, a incidência da supressio à conduta omissiva do titular, a carnellutiana servidão empresarial e, por último, o usufruto de direitos. Para tanto, foi tangenciada a alteração conceitual dos termos bem, coisa, posse e propriedade de modo a contextualizar significados, estáticos, trazidos desde o direito romano. Contempla a figura da posse de direitos ou da posse como exercício fático de um poder sobre um bem, além do eventual substitutivo de tal requisito usucapiente pelo uso qualificado. Abrange, ainda, uma análise crítica à ausência de disposições normativas específicas sobre a apropriabilidade originária, o que acaba elevando, desproporcionalmente, os poderes do titular da patente. A aquisição originária de bens incorpóreos permite, portanto, acesso igualitário aos bens imateriais, além de estimular o exercício da função social pelo titular. Na hipótese da usucapião inclusiva, atende-se, concomitantemente, ao direito de propriedade e à livre iniciativa e concorrência, disponibilizando opções de produtos no mercado, derivados de players diferentes, advindos da mesma tecnologia interditada. / This paper focuses on the possibility of an adverse possession of patents, a bundle of rights brought by the adverse possession, the incidence of supressio towards the omissive conduct of the patent owner, a critical review of Francesco Carnellutis thesis of an entrepreneur easement and, finally, the simultaneous use of patent rights. A conceptual aproach of the terms "good, "estate", "possession" and "property" was made in order to contextualize the static meanings brought from the Roman law into Brazilian codification. The figure includes the possession or ownership rights as a de facto exercise of power over an estate, besides the eventual replacement of this requirement by a qualified use. The paper focus on a critical analysis of the absence of specific legislative provisions concerning to adverse possession towards intellectual property, which results on a disproportional power of the patentee. The acquisition of intellectual property by adverse possession, therefore, allowes equal access, and encourages the pursuit of social function by the patent holder. In the event of adverse possession generating a bundle of rights, property right and free enterprise (and competition) are estimulated by a plurality offer of products, coming from various market players, towards the same patent technology.

Este trabalho discute o patenteamento farmacêutico no Brasil por meio de análises dos exames de patentes propriamente ditos, com a entrada em vigor da atual lei da propriedade industrial (Lei 9.279/1996). Para a compreensão de como funciona o exame de patentes, parte-se da apresentação de conceitos basilares da propriedade industrial. É dado destaque à importância das patentes como fonte de informação tecnológica (pesquisa bibliográfica em bancos de patentes e para a recuperação das informações contidas nestes documentos). Neste ponto, apresenta-se um estudo sobre as patentes relacionadas ao efavirenz, por tratar-se de um caso excepcional na discussão sobre propriedade industrial e saúde pública; já que ele foi o primeiro medicamento licenciado compulsoriamente pelo Governo brasileiro (dentro da política de controle da epidemia da Aids). Em seguida, o problema da associação entre os direitos de propriedade industrial e o acesso a medicamentos é abordado em dois capítulos relevantes: i) as questões sobre a atenteabilidade de polimorfos de fármacos; e ii) os procedimentos técnicos adotados no exame de patentes farmacêuticas no âmbito da Coordenação de Propriedade Intelectual da ANVISA (COOPI-ANVISA) e do Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial (INPI). De fato, o primeiro tratado internacional relativo à propriedade industrial, a Convenção da União de Paris (CUP, de 1883), já propugnava o princípio da independência das patentes, ou seja, que cada país tem liberdade para decidir sobre a patenteabilidade ou não dos diferentes produtos e processos de invenção. Mais tarde, o Acordo TRIPS (de 1995) não vedará aos países a adoção de escopos de proteção distintos, visando o equilíbrio entre os interesses públicos e privados em diferentes domínios tecnológicos, nos diferentes países. Finalmente, a Declaração de Doha, de 2001, prevê dispositivos flexibilizadores de modo a favorecer precisamente políticas de saúde e acesso a medicamentos pela utilização de salvaguardas dos direitos de propriedade intelectual no exame de pedidos de patentes. Conclui-se, neste trabalho, que aspectos técnicos e jurídicos inerentes ao patenteamento aliados à capacidade política de decisão em favor da implementação de flexibilidades no exame de pedidos patentes de fármacos e medicamentos podem ser mais ou menos favoráveis à saúde pública. / This work discusses the pharmaceutical patenting in Brazil through analysis of patent examination itself, since the inception of the current Industrial Property Law (Law 9.279/1996). In order to understanding how patent examination works, it stars from the presentation of basic concepts of industrial property. It is given highlights to the importance of patents as a technological information source (bibliographic research in patent database and to recover information contained in those documents). At this point, it is presented a study on Efavirenzrelated patents, since it is an exceptional case in the discussion on industrial property and public health; once it was the first drug compulsorily licensed by Brazilian Government (within the control policy of AIDS epidemy). Next, the issue of association between industrial property rights and the access to medicaments is approached in two relevant chapters: i) issues on the patenteability of pharmaceutical polymorphs; and ii)technical procedures adopted in the examination of pharmaceutical patents under ANVISA Coordenation of Industrial Property (COOPI-ANVISA) and Industrial Property National Institute (INPI). In fact, the first intenational treaty related to industrial property the Convention of Union of Paris (CUP, of 1883), already defended the principle of independence of patentes, i.e., each country has the liberty to decide on the patenteability or not of the different invention products and processes. Then, the TRIPS Accordance (1995) does not preclude the contries the adoption of different scopes of protection, in order to achieve a balance between public and private interests in different technological fields. Finally, the Doha Declaration (2001), provides softners devices in order to precisely promote health policies and access to medicaments to the utilization of safeguards of intelectual property rights in examination of patent applications. It is concluded, in this work, that technical and legal aspects related to patenting, combined with the ability of political decision in favor of the implementation of flexibilities in the examination of medicine and drugs patent applications may be more or less favorable or detrimental to public health.

Submitted by Cássia Santos (cassia.bcufg@gmail.com) on 2017-08-04T11:34:46Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Mônica Ribeiro de Paiva - 2016.pdf: 2593231 bytes, checksum: 04ea99c84ddc813b6f363314a47188ab (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-08-07T15:41:54Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Mônica Ribeiro de Paiva - 2016.pdf: 2593231 bytes, checksum: 04ea99c84ddc813b6f363314a47188ab (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-07T15:41:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Mônica Ribeiro de Paiva - 2016.pdf: 2593231 bytes, checksum: 04ea99c84ddc813b6f363314a47188ab (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-09-30 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Goiás - FAPEG / This study has the objective to analyze aspects relating to intellectual property of biotechnology in order to identify whether it is a monopoly or development for sustainability, starting with case analysis of application for biotechnology patent held by the company Integra. It is intended to also report brief evolutionary history of intellectual property in Brazil and the world; address aspects related to the constitutionalisation of intellectual property rights in Brazil; introduce the concept given by the doctrine to intellectual property; addressing aspects related to biodiversity and sustainability. The problem situation that if you want to answer is: the intellectual property of biotechnology can be considered a monopoly or development to sustainability? The type of research used as the means is the literature. As for the purpose, the research is exploratory. The problem approach is qualitative. For better presentation, the development is divided into chapters. In the first chapter, which takes care of addressing intellectual property in Brazilian law, seeks to report soon evolutionary history of intellectual property in Brazil and worldwide, as well as addressing issues concerning the constitutionalization of intellectual property rights in Brazil. Also in its bulge is intended to present the doctrinal concept of intellectual property. In the second chapter, the objective is to address issues related to biodiversity and sustainability. The third chapter aims to analyze aspects relating to intellectual property of biotechnology, to identify it comes to monopoly or development for sustainability. / Esse estudo tem por objetivo geral analisar aspectos referentes à propriedade intelectual de biotecnologias, visando identificar se trata-se de monopólio ou de desenvolvimento para a sustentabilidade, partindo-se de analise de caso concreto de pedido de patente biotecnológica realizado pela empresa Integra. Pretende-se, ainda, relatar breve histórico evolutivo da propriedade intelectual no Brasil e no mundo; abordar aspectos referentes à constitucionalização dos direitos intelectuais no Brasil; apresentar o conceito dado pela doutrina para propriedade intelectual; abordar aspectos referentes à biodiversidade e sustentabilidade. A situação-problema que se pretende responder é a seguinte: a propriedade intelectual de biotecnologias pode ser considerada um monopólio ou desenvolvimento para a sustentabilidade? O tipo de pesquisa utilizado, quanto aos meios, é a bibliográfica. Já quanto aos fins, a pesquisa é do tipo exploratória. A abordagem do problema é qualitativa. Para melhor apresentação, o desenvolvimento está dividido em capítulos. No primeiro capítulo, que cuida de abordar a propriedade intelectual no direito brasileiro, busca-se relatar breve histórico evolutivo da propriedade intelectual no Brasil e no mundo, bem como abordar aspectos referentes à constitucionalização dos direitos intelectuais no Brasil. Também em seu bojo se pretende apresentar o conceito doutrinário de propriedade intelectual. No segundo capítulo, objetiva-se abordar aspectos referentes à biodiversidade e sustentabilidade. No terceiro capítulo, propõe-se analisar aspectos referentes à propriedade intelectual de biotecnologias, visando identificar se trata de monopólio ou de desenvolvimento para a sustentabilidade.

Estudo sobre a aplicabilidade de construção de mapas conceituais, a partir de relatórios descritivos de patentes, com o objetivo de se identificar conhecimento científico utilizado na geração de inovações. Parte do pressuposto que o uso de mapas conceituais permite estabelecer relações entre a produção científica e a produção de patentes, complementando critérios bibliométricos de avaliação da produção científica. Trata-se de estudo exploratório, baseado em referencial teórico sobre o desenvolvimento de mapas conceituais, seu uso e apropriação pelas diversas áreas do conhecimento, complementado por testes de aplicação dos conceitos na construção de mapas conceituais em amostra de patentes acadêmicas brasileiras. O uso de mapas conceituais se mostrou eficiente para explicitar o assunto e suas facetas, mas não para se identificar o conhecimento básico utilizado na sua concepção. / Study on the applicability of construction of conceptual maps, from descriptive reports of patents, in order to identify scientific knowledge used in the generation of innovations. The study starts from the premisse that the use of conceptual maps allows to establish relationships between the scientific output and the production of patents, complementing bibliometrical criteria of appraisal of the scientific production. It is an exploratory study, based on theoretic references about the development of conceptual maps, its use, and appropriation by the various knowledge areas, complemented by enforcement tests of the concepts in the construction of conceptual maps in sample of Brazilian academic patents. The use of conceptual maps appeared efficient in order to explicite the matter and your facets, but not to identify the basic knowledge used in its conception.

Estudo sobre a aplicabilidade de construção de mapas conceituais, a partir de relatórios descritivos de patentes, com o objetivo de se identificar conhecimento científico utilizado na geração de inovações. Parte do pressuposto que o uso de mapas conceituais permite estabelecer relações entre a produção científica e a produção de patentes, complementando critérios bibliométricos de avaliação da produção científica. Trata-se de estudo exploratório, baseado em referencial teórico sobre o desenvolvimento de mapas conceituais, seu uso e apropriação pelas diversas áreas do conhecimento, complementado por testes de aplicação dos conceitos na construção de mapas conceituais em amostra de patentes acadêmicas brasileiras. O uso de mapas conceituais se mostrou eficiente para explicitar o assunto e suas facetas, mas não para se identificar o conhecimento básico utilizado na sua concepção. / Study on the applicability of construction of conceptual maps, from descriptive reports of patents, in order to identify scientific knowledge used in the generation of innovations. The study starts from the premisse that the use of conceptual maps allows to establish relationships between the scientific output and the production of patents, complementing bibliometrical criteria of appraisal of the scientific production. It is an exploratory study, based on theoretic references about the development of conceptual maps, its use, and appropriation by the various knowledge areas, complemented by enforcement tests of the concepts in the construction of conceptual maps in sample of Brazilian academic patents. The use of conceptual maps appeared efficient in order to explicite the matter and your facets, but not to identify the basic knowledge used in its conception.

Economia / MASTERS IN ECONOMICS / The relationship between patents and R&D involves different levels besides the ones most obvious to us. Throughout the history of economics, patents have arisen as the core of a system of incentives to private pursue of R&D investments, providing the mechanism that guaranteed the appropriability of the output of the knowledge produced. The seminal work of Romer (1990) demonstrated the need to develop a system to assure the necessary return on innovative efforts and thus privately sustain a model of continuous technological improvement and economic growth. Patenting would result in imperfect competition and legally establish the monopoly over the use of the knowledge produced. This led to patents being perceived as an intermediate output of R&D efforts. Though this relationship has been subject of intensive study by economists, the reverse causality issue remains to be thoroughly analyzed, particularly in a negative sense. Can more patents have a negative effect on R&D investment? In the present thesis we address this question, synthesizing the theoretical and empirical studies concerning both the conventional R&D-patents relationship and the reverse causality, in particular, the potential for a negative impact of patents over R&D. The theoretical survey on this issue uncovered several gaps in the literature, specifically in terms of availability of empirical analysis at the country level. Despite the literature on reverse causality direction being scarce; the macroeconomic perspective on this issue is even more unexplored. In fact, there is no evidence that ruled out the possibility of asymmetric effects of patents on R&D in accordance to the level of GDP and technology in general, and to `convergence clubs in particular. Using panel data econometric estimation methods on a sample of 88 countries, over a eight-year period (1996-2003), and controlling for clubs of convergence to account for differences among countries in stages of economic development, we found mix support to the negativity of patent on R&D investment. Stratifying the sample by convergence clubs we obtain that accumulated patents positively impact on R&D intensity for the set of less developed countries whereas no statistically significant effect emerges in the case of higher developed converge clubs. Interestingly, when we restrict the highest developed convergence club down to countries with a R&D intensity above 3%, the negativity reverse causality arises, corroborating the asymmetric impact of patents on R&D investment depending on countries development and technological stage. Finally, we demonstrate that albeit causality appears to be stronger in the most intuitive appealing traditional direction, there is evidence supporting the theoretical conveyed double causality between R&D and Patent. JEL-codes: O31, O34

L’agriculture est un secteur qui connaît de forts bouleversements depuis plusieurs années en France. Face à cette instabilité croissante, les firmes ont besoin de moyens pour caractériser leur environnement externe et ainsi être en capacité de saisir les opportunités qui se créent. Cette thèse a pour objectif de développer une méthode d’intelligence technologique qui pourra être intégrée au sein du groupe Avril. Pour cela, nous nous appuyons sur le cas de la moindre utilisation des antibiotiques dans l’élevage.Dans un premier temps, nous montrons en quoi les méthodes d’intelligence technologique peuvent effectivement apporter un soutien au management de l’innovation chez Avril. Nous étudions l’agro-industrie et plus particulièrement l’élevage à travers les concepts de paradigmes, de trajectoires ou encore de régimes technologiques qui se retrouvent dans la littérature évolutionniste. Nous montrons que le paradigme de l’antibiotique dans la santé animale est toujours d’actualité mais qu’un changement de trajectoire est en cours. Cela justifie le recours aux méthodes d’intelligence technologique.Dans un second temps, nous développerons une méthode d’intelligence technologique pour le groupe, appliquée à la caractérisation des solutions scientifiques et techniques pour une diminution de l’utilisation des antibiotiques dans l’élevage. A l’issue de ce cas, un travail plus poussé sur le cas précis des phages est réalisé. Nous montrons à travers ce travail comment ces méthodes peuvent s’intégrer au sein du processus organisationnel de la firme. / Agriculture is a sector with major upheavals for several years in France. Faced with this growing instability, firms need to characterize their external environment to be able to seize opportunities. This thesis aims to develop a method of competitive technical intelligence that can be integrated in the Avril group. For this, we rely on the case of the lower use of antibiotics in livestock farming.First, we show how competitive technical intelligence methods support the management of innovation in the Avril group. We study agro-industry and more particularly livestock farming through the concepts of technological paradigms, trajectories and regimes that are found in evolutionary literature. We show that the antibiotic’s paradigm in animal health is still relevant, but changes of technological trajectories are in progress. That is why we can use the competitive technical intelligence methods.Secondly, we develop a method of competitive technical intelligence for the Avril group, applied to the characterization of scientific and technical solutions for a decrease in the use of antibiotics in livestock farming. At the end of this case, we work on the case of phages for more precisions. We show through this work how these methods can be integrated in the organizational process of the firm.

The reach of the patent system has substantially broadened in recent decades. Subject matter extensions were not introduced by parliaments, but by individual judges considering specific cases, often between private parties. The focus in this thesis is whether these changes create a net economic benefit to society. Because of the lack of data on patents, it is not possible to address this question directly. The thesis therefore focuses on a critical aspect of patents: their inventiveness.¶ The main contribution of this thesis is a detailed empirical assessment of the inventiveness of patents. This assessment breaks new ground by using the actual claims in the patent specification as the basis for a qualitative assessment against the yardstick of whether there is any new contribution to knowledge. This yardstick is used because a key social benefit from private invention is the spillovers from new knowledge. In addition a low inventive threshold encourages monopoly grants for inventions that would have occurred absent patents, and thus increases social costs without any offsetting benefits.¶ A small universe of 72 recently granted Australian business method patents is assessed on this basis. Of these, one possibly contributes new knowledge, and three others possibly contribute new ideas, but without any associated new knowledge. It is hard to find any contribution in the rest of the dataset. The data suggest that the large majority of currently granted patents produce no benefit to society, and do not meet the normal definition of the concept of “invention”.¶ The detailed analysis shows the underlying problems to include identifying previous knowledge, an issue already suggested by the literature, but more extensively documented here. The legal judgement rules developed through case law are shown to be very poor yardsticks for implementation of an important economic policy. The narrow legal doctrines result in, for example, the computerisation of well-known methods being judged both novel and inventive. They also allow obvious combinations of old ideas, and trivial variations on old ideas to be granted patent monopolies. Despite the analogous use doctrine, patents are granted for the application of known methods to new areas for which they are well suited.¶ A number of proposals are put forward for reform of patent policy. The underlying theme is that there should be a good chance, and clear evidence, that the patent system enhances national economic well-being. Specific proposals include writing the objective of patent policy into the statute so that judges have clear guidance in their decision-making, limiting the grant of patents to science and technology based inventions, requiring the patent applicant to demonstrate novelty and inventiveness beyond reasonable doubt, setting the inventiveness standard in the context of a balance between benefits and costs, and introducing a defence of independent invention.¶ As the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) mandates no discrimination under patent law between fields of technology, the results of this investigation may be generalisable to other technology fields. They may also be generalisable to the inventiveness standards in other jurisdictions: of the 72 Australian patents, 32 have already received at least one overseas grant (18 if New Zealand is excluded).

由於網際網路全球化、數位化等特性使得智慧財產權的侵害問題日益嚴重，電子商務經營業者莫不尋求更有效的保護方式，而專利權便是最具排他性的一種保護方式。就在眾多網際網路商業模式如雨後春筍般出現之際，許多電子商務經營業者已經取得為數不少的網際網路相關專利，所謂的網際網路相關專利，在多數文獻上其意思為：「網際網路業務方法專利」（詳見第二章文獻探討—網際網路相關專利之定義），而網際網路相關專利與網際網路商業模式（定義詳見第二章文獻探討—網際網路商業模式之定義）之間是否存在某種關係呢？ 本研究透過對美國專利商標局所核發之網際網路相關專利進行個案分析，以瞭解兩者之關係，所得到的結論從政策面來說，美國政府在核發網際網路相關專利時，應當嚴格認定「該技術是否非顯而易見」。 從投資的角度來說，投資者已無法單從專利數量來評估一個網站/一家公司的投資潛力，「專利的市場價值重於數量，專利與網際網路商業模式的搭配更為重要」；而專利的市場價值可以由專利的需求面、專利的供給面與專利的動態市場價值來衡量；專利與網際網路商業模式的搭配是指「某一網際網路商業模式的專利組合（patent portfolio）」，由於不同的網際網路商業模式會使用到不同的專利技術（除了使用到相同的專利技術之外）而該專利是否為該網際網路商業模式不可獲缺的關鍵性技術，便決定了該專利在此網際網路商業模式的價值。（詳見第五章結論與建議）；電子商務經營業者如何結合專利、品牌（商標權）、著作權以及營業秘密形成一難以攻破的套裝式智財權保護組合，是排除競爭者以及說服投資者該網際網路商業模式獲利潛力的重要課題。 從電子商務經營管理的角度來說，由個案分析可以瞭解部分公司之專利組合（Patent portfolio）與網際網路商業模式的關係是：網際網路相關專利與公司的Path dependency（見結論）以及發展次網際網路商業模式的策略性意圖有關。 另外由專利類型來說，專利在電子商務經營業者之網際網路商業模式所扮演的角色--關鍵性專利是主要的攻擊武器，基礎性專利則是主要的防禦性盾牌（關鍵性專利與基礎性專利的定義見第四章第四節--個案分析之第三小節之專利類型）。 由本研究的探討可以瞭解專利在網際網路商業模式中與品牌（商標權）、著作權、營業秘密都是一種保護創新、R＆D投入、市場佔有率以及吸引投資與創造授權機會之工具，唯有可以獲利的網際網路商業模式搭配可以保護其創新之智慧財產權組合才會有永續經營的電子商務經營業者。