No abstract available / Mercantile Law / LL. B.

"Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit (LL.M.) Option droit, Biotechnologies et société" / [À l'origine dans / Was originally part of : CRDP - Droit, biotechnologie et rapport au milieu] / Texte du mémoire également publié dans Lex Electronica ; vol. 10, no 2 (Été/Automne 2005) / Au cours de la dernière décennie, la pharmacogénomique est devenue le mantra révolutionnaire de nombreux chercheurs et de certains porte-paroles de l'industrie. L'intérêt que porteront les compagnies bio-pharmaceutiques du secteur privé à la recherche et au développement de nouveaux médicaments pharmacogénomiques sera déterminé par la facilité à obtenir du financement et les perspectives de retombées économiques. Dans cette perspective, le droit de la propriété intellectuelle (plus spécifiquement le droit des brevets) a toujours été l'instrument de prédilection pour motiver la recherche et le développement des produits pharmaceutiques. Cependant, l'extension de ce droit au domaine de la pharmacogénomique est controversé. Cette étude évalue l'applicabilité du système international des brevets au domaine de la pharmacogénomique. Suite à une analyse comparative du droit et des principaux textes normatifs, applicables aux brevets pharmaceutiques et biotechnologiques, ainsi qu'à une revue de la doctrine, l'étude soutient que le système de brevets reste une solution viable pour encourager la recherche et le développement dans le domaine de la pharmacogénomique. Cependant, certains ajustements sont nécessaires pour empêcher que des brevets trop larges, ayant des fondements juridiques douteux, ne soient octroyés sur des nouveaux tests de diagnostic pharmacogénomiques et sur des nouveaux outils de diagnostic pharmacogénomiques, ce qui serait néfaste à la recherche et limiterait l'accès aux soins de santé. Plusieurs stratégies sont proposées pour promouvoir un système de brevets applicable au domaine des biotechnologies qui, tout en donnant la motivation nécessaire aux inventeurs et à l'industrie, protégerait nos valeurs humaines fondamentales. / In the last decade, pharmacogenomics has become the "revolution" mantra for numerous researchers and industry representatives. The research interest of the industry for pharmacogenomics will be determined by financing possibilities and prospective economic benefits. In this perspective, the intellectual property system (more specifically patents), has always been the privileged tool to motivate research and development of pharmaceutical products. However, its application to pharmacogenomics is controversial. This study evaluates the applicability of the international patent system to the area of pharmacogenomics. A comparative review and analysis of international laws and guidelines applicable to biotechnology and pharmaceutical patents as well as a review of the literature was carried out. Our study found that the patent system remains a viable solution to promote research and development of pharmacogenomics. However, some adjustments are needed to ensure that overbroad patent having a weak legal basis are not granted on both new pharmacogenomic research tools and diagnostic tests since this could be detrimental to research and limit access to healthcare. Strategies are suggested to promote a patent system, applicable to the field of biotechnology, that will give the necessary incentive to inventors and industry while protecting our fundamental human values.

En Europe, la transition énergétique du secteur électrique est unique à la fois d'un point de vue géographique et historique. D'une part, elle s'inscrit dans un double processus d'addition et de substitution technologique. Par ailleurs, elle appelle les électriciens à sortir du paradigme thermique et à mobiliser de nouvelles connaissances pour cela. L'objet de ce travail de recherche est de caractériser les stratégies d'innovation mises en œuvre au niveau des six plus importants groupes électriciens européens (EDF, Enel, Engie, E.ON, Iberdrola et RWE) et à l'échelle du secteur. En nous appuyant sur les brevets déposés entre 2007 et 2013 et sur les projets collaboratifs conduits dans le cadre du 7eme PCRD, nous analysons les stratégies technologiques qui concernent la direction du progrès et les stratégies d'acquisition des connaissances qui concernent la démarche mobilisée par les électriciens pour introduire les technologies bas carbone. Nous mettons en évidence qu'à l'échelle du secteur, les technologies d'addition sont privilégiées aux technologies de substitution et que ces dernières font l'objet d'une démarche d'ouverture moins marquée que les technologies d'addition. En outre, il apparaît que les électriciens les plus émetteurs ne sont pas ceux qui mobilisent une stratégie de substitution technologique la plus marquée. En revanche, ils mettent en œuvre une démarche d'ouverture la plus prononcée pour acquérir les nouvelles connaissances. / In Europe, the energy transition of the power sector is unique both from a geographical and historical standpoint. First, it is part of a two-way process of technological addition and substitution. Furthermore, it calls power corporations to exit the thermal paradigm and, in this perspective, gain new knowledge. The purpose of this research work is to characterize the innovation strategies implemented by six of the major European power companies (EDF, Enel, Engie, E.ON, Iberdrola and RWE) and by the industry. Based on the registeted patents between 2007 and 2013 and collaborative projects conducted in the frameword of the 7th PCRD, we will analyze the technology strategies relating to direction of progress and strategies relating to knowledge acquisition implemented by power companies in order to introduce low carbon technologies. We will highlight that at industry level, addition technologies are favoured in comparison with substitution technologies. We will also demonstrate that the latter shall be less prone to an open approach than addition technologies. Moreover, it seems that power companies with the largest emissions are not those who develop the most significant technology substitution strategy. However, they carry out the most openness based strategy in order to gain new knowledge.

Der aus Quakenbrück (Münsterland) gebürtige Jurist Heinrich Friedrich Wilhelm André (1827 – 1903), von 1874 bis 1896 Oberbürgermeister der sächsischen Industriemetropole Chemnitz, hat wesentlichen Anteil an der Schaffung des deutschen Reichspatentgesetzes. In Zusammenarbeit mit Werner Siemens und unterstützt durch einen speziellen Ausschuss des VDI konnte zunächst ein „Entwurf eines Patentgesetzes für das Deutsche Reich“ erstellt werden Dieser regelte den Gegenstand des Patentschutzes und das Erteilungsverfahren, die Aufgaben der Patentbehörden (Patentamt und Reichsoberhandelsgericht) sowie mögliche Rechtsstreitigkeiten. Die Vorlage dieses Entwurfs auf der Patentkonferenz auf der Wiener Weltausstellung (1873) unter Vorsitz von Dr. Charles William Siemens, einem der Siemens-Brüder, beförderte die baldige internationale Verständigung über den Patentschutz. Im Mai 1874 erfolgte daraufhin die Gründung des Deutschen Patentschutzvereins, gefolgt vom Erlass des Markenschutzgesetzes und des Musterschutzgesetzes (1876). 1876 veröffentlichte der Verein den Entwurf für ein Deutsches Patentgesetz. Nachdem die Landesregierungen ihr Einverständnis erklärt hatten, die kaiserlichen Genehmigungen sowie die Billigung von Bundesrat und Reichstag vorlagen, wurde das Gesetz und am 25. Mai 1877 schließlich verkündet. Am 1. Juli 1877 trat das 45 Paragraphen umfassende Gesetzeswerk in Kraft. Dr. André engagierte sich auch fürderhin in Sachen Patentwesen und Gesetzeswerk, nahm wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen vor und sorgte für juristische Präzisierung und Vervollständigung, so dass am 7. April 1891 ein neues Patentgesetz erlassen werden konnte. In Anerkennung dieser Leistungen urteilte das amerikanische Journal of the Patent Office Society: „It can not be gainsaid that the German patent system was the finest in the world.“ / The jurist André Heinrich Friedrich Wilhelm (1827 - 1903), born in Quakenbrück (Münsterland) and from 1874 to 1896 Lord Mayor of the industrial city of Chemnitz, Saxony, played a major role in the creation of the Patent Law of the German Reich. In collaboration with Werner Siemens and supported by a special committee of the VDI at first he drew up a "Draft Patent Law for the German Reich". It regulated the subject of patent protection and the granting procedure, the tasks of the patent office (Patent Office and the Reich Chief Commercial Court) and possible litigation. The presentation of this draft at the Vienna World Exhibition Conference (1873) under the chairmanship of Dr. Charles William Siemens, one of the Siemens brothers, promoted the upcoming national and international understanding of patent protection. The German Patent Protection Association was founded in May 1874. It was followed by the enactment of the Trademark Act and the Design Protection Act (1876). In 1876 the Association published a draft of a German patent law. After the regional governments had given their consent, there were royal approvals and the approval of the Bundesrat and the Reichstag. The law was announced on 25th of May 1877. On 1st July 1877 the comprehensive piece of legislation with 45 paragraphs came into force. From then onwards Andre was also involved in matters regarding the patent system and its legislation, undertook scientific studies and provided legal clarification and completion. On 7th of April 1891 a new patent law was adopted. In recognition of this achievment the Journal of the American Patent Society Office acclaimed: "It can not be gainsaid that the German patent system was the finest in the world."

Do firms with higher levels of innovation output, measured by patent counts and citations, enjoy lower costs of funds? The process to develop and apply for patents involves valuable resources. Thus, applying for a patent is a credible signal that the underlying invention is valuable. This value is validated to some degree when the patent is granted. In addition, patents contain detailed information about the firm's inventions and provide collateral value as they can be sold and licensed. The number of citations a firm receives act as a proxy for high-quality inventions, active networking, and pioneering. These attributes are expected to attract investors and reduce the cost of funds. Univariate and cross-sectional regression analyses of a sample consisting of 404,595 firm-years, involving firms from twenty-eight countries spanning from 1976 to 2012, demonstrate a significant negative association between innovation output and the cost of funds. The evidence suggests that the marginal benefit of innovation diminishes as innovation output increases. The results are robust to different measures of the cost of equity and the cost of debt. The negative association between the cost of equity and innovation output is economically larger for younger and smaller firms. The long-term level of innovation seems to be more important to shareholders than short-term changes of innovation. In addition, shareholders demonstrate an ability to discern between low and high-quality innovations, as they require lower rates of returns when initial patents exhibit a high quality. Shareholders place more value on innovation output when firms operate in countries with legal systems that are more effective in controlling self-dealing practices, in countries that have higher economic freedom, and in countries that have more developed financial markets. The correlation between the cost of debt and innovation output is predominantly derived by larger, more mature, and more leveraged firms. Innovation output and the cost of debt are not correlated for low levels of innovation; however, medium and high levels of innovation output relative to peer firms are associated with lower costs of bonds. The findings suggest that the effect of innovation on the cost of debt is stronger in countries with more developed financial markets and in countries characterized by higher levels of economic freedom. Practices that control for self-dealing do not affect the association between innovation output and the cost of debt.

This diploma thesis describes and analyzes an area of competitive intelligence in the pharmaceutical industry. The work is divided into five parts. The first part deals with competitive intelligence and related aspects, the second part is dedicated to the pharmaceutical industry, with all specifics. The third part deals with competitive intelligence in the intersection with the pharmaceutical industry, the fourth part contains the classification and description of information resources appropriate for the activities of CI and a fifth part presents research, which consists of a questionnaire survey among pharmaceutical companies on the state of competitive intelligence and semi-structured interview with an expert in the area of CI in pharmaceutical company. The survey results represent a certain sub-probe, which demonstrates the strong position of CI as a common standard of pharmaceutical companies. Keywords competitive intelligence, pharmaceutical industry, information needs, drugs, pharmacovigilance, patents, information resources

In this thesis, the aim is to address the persistent challenges posed by differing perspectives despite the establishment of the TRIPS agreement, which serves as a shared foundation for addressing legal and practical gaps among jurisdictions worldwide. The focus is on analyzing the Bolar exemptions within TRIPS Flexibilities for pharmaceutical patents in three specific regions: the Republic of Finland, the People's Republic of China (China), and the United States (the US). By employing a hierarchical approach that incorporates deductive theory, examination of legal cases, and literature review, this research aims to identify and resolve disparities between these jurisdictions. Both international law and national legal systems are scrutinized to ensure comparability across the three continents. Ultimately, the study presents a comprehensive assessment of the advantages and disadvantages associated with implementing Bolar provisions in each country, particularly in the context of facilitating access to vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic.

It is universally acknowledged that environmental protection has become one of the most pressing global issues in the last decades. Green technology is indispensable to finding less damaging alternatives, and no innovation is carried out without investment. In contribution to environmental economics, the purpose of this thesis is to provide empirical evidence on whether green investment has a relationship with eco-innovation in the European Union (EU). The study draws on a theoretical framework that combines Romer's endogenous growth theory and the Ecological Modernization theory. Based on this framework, the hypothesis expected is a positive impact of green investment on eco-innovation. The analysis utilizes data on environmental protection investment as a measure of green investment, and environmental-related technology patents as a measure of eco-innovation. A panel data analysis is conducted from the years 2013 to 2019 on EU countries, employing random effects model to regress the relationship between the two variables. The results provide statistically significant evidence that green investment has a positive impact on eco-innovation.

Recently several European countries have announced massive increases in their military budgets. Innovation initiatives organized by NATO and the European Defence Fund will also be conducted over the coming decade. Studying how these resources can be deployed efficiently is crucial if these initiatives are to provide maximum benefits to European defense capabilities and the civilian sector through spillover-effects. This thesis explores what factors characterize high-performing startups in defense in order to give defense innovation initiatives an indication on how to spend their resources. The results should also be useful for aspiring entrepreneurs in defense who wish to increase their chances of creating a high-performing startup in the sector. The factors that are studied are company industry, company patents and governmental funding. These are examined in a quantitative study, followed by illustrations for the most successful companies in the dataset. It is found that the company industry for the most successful companies is surprisingly similar, with a heavy focus on software over hardware. The illustrations also highlight the need for governmental contracts in the scale-up stage of companies. / Flera europeiska länder har nyligen meddelat att de kommer att göra massiva ökningar i sina försvarsbudgetar. NATO och europeiska försvarsfonden kommer även att organisera innovationsinitiativ under det kommande årtiondet. Det är viktigt att studera hur dessa resurser kan distribueras effektivt så att dessa initiativ kan göra maximal nytta för europeisk försvarsförmåga och för den civila sektorn genom spill-over effekter. Denna avhandling undersöker vilka faktorer som karaktäriserar högpresterande startups inom försvarsindustrin för att ge innovationsinitiativ en indikering på hur de bör distribuera sina resurser. Resultaten från denna avhandling borde även vara användbara för aspirerande entreprenörer inom försvarsindustrin som vill öka sina chanser att skapa en högpresterande startup. De faktorer som studeras är industri, patent och statlig finansiering. Dessa faktorer undersöks i en kvantitativ studie samt i två illustreringar över de två mest framgångsrika företagen i den data som står till grund för denna avhandling. Det visar sig att de två mest framgångsrika företagen i datan har en väldigt liknande industrifokus, med ett starkt fokus på mjukvara över hårdvara. Illustrationerna påvisar också ett behov för statliga kontrakt i uppskalningsfasen för företag inom försvarsindustrin.

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