As fosfolipases A2 (PLA2s, ou fosfatidil-acil hidrolases EC 3.1.1.4) catalisam especificamente a hidrólise das ligações ácido-éster na posição sn-2 de glicerofosfolipídios liberando, como produto da catálise, ácidos graxos e lisofosfolipídio. São encontradas em plantas, mamíferos e em veneno de animais vertebrados e invertebrados e estão envolvidas em uma ampla variedade de processos fisiológicos. A fosfolipase A2 secretada humana do grupo IIA (hsPLA2 gIIA) é uma proteína de fase aguda da resposta imunológica, pois sua expressão é induzida por endotoxinas e citocinas via processos autócrinos e/ou parácrinos durante processos inflamatórios de relevância clínica. A hsPLA2 gIIA mostra efeito bactericida contra infecção por Staphylococcus aureus, e tem marcada preferência por fosfolipídios aniônicos tais como fosfatidilglicerol (PG) encontrados em membranas bacterianas. Uma grande variedade de inibidores de PLA2 do grupo IIA foi descrita na literatura, incluindo substâncias polianiônicas que atuam contra os efeitos inflamatórios destas enzimas. Suramina é um derivado de naftiluréia polissulfonado que recentemente mostrou ligação com os resíduos catiônicos no sítio de reconhecimento interfacial de Bothropstoxina-I (BthTX-I), uma PLA2-Lys49 isolada do veneno de Bothrops jararacussu, inibindo a atividade miotóxica da proteína. Devido ao tipo de interação diferenciada da suramina com BthTX-I em relação aos inibidores competitivos de PLA2, nós avaliamos a especificidade de ligação da suramina na hsPLA2 gIIA como um modelo para estudar este novo tipo de inibidor de PLA2s. O efeito da suramina nas atividades biológicas e de membranas artificiais da hsPLA2 gIIA foi avaliado. A suramina aboliu tanto a atividade hidrolítica da hsPLA2 gIIA quanto a atividade de danificação de membranas artificiais Ca2+ independente. Embora a suramina não tenha inibido a atividade bactericida da hsPLA2 gIIA contra a linhagem Micrococcus luteus, a ativação de macrófagos foi abolida pela mesma de maneira dependente de hidrólise. Além disso, técnicas de simulação de dinâmica molecular, calorimetria de titulação isotérmica e mutagênese sítio dirigida foram utilizadas para mapear os sítios de ligação da suramina na proteína. A interação da suramina com a hsPLA2 gIIA resultou de interações eletrostáticas entre grupos sulfonados com cadeias laterais de aminoácidos da região do sítio ativo e dos resíduos em torno das posições 15 e 116 localizados, respectivamente, na N- e Cterminal. Portanto, estes resultados permitem sugerir que a suramina pode atuar como inibidor de sPLA2s / Suramin is a polysulphonated napthylurea used as an antiprotozoal drug that presents inhibitory activity against a broad range of enzymes. We have evaluated the effect of suramin against the artificial and biological activities of the secreted human group IIA phospholipase A2 (hsPLA2 gIIA), a protein involved in inflammatory processes. To map the suramin binding sites on the hsPLA2 gIIA, proteins with mutations in the active site region and in the protein surface that makes contact with the phospholipids membrane were expressed in E. coli and refolded from inclusion bodies. The activation of macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 by hsPLA2 gIIA was monitored by nitric oxide release, and bactericidal activity of the protein against Micrococcus luteus was evaluated by colony counting and by flow cytometry. The hydrolytic activity of the hsPLA2 gIIA against lipossomes composed of a mixture of dioleoylphosphatidylcholine/dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol (DOPC/DOPG) was inhibited by a concentration of 100 nM suramin. The activation of macrophages by hsPLA2 gIIA was abolished at protein/suramin molar ratios where the hydrolytic activity of the enzyme was inhibited. In contrast, both the bactericidal activity of hsPLA2 gIIA against Micrococcus luteus and permeabilization of the bacterial inner membrane were unaffected by suramin concentrations up to 50 M. The affinity of interaction of the suramin with hsPLA2 gIIA was evaluated by suramine fluorescence and the mutants K15A, K38A, R54A and K123A presented a reduced affinity. The binding of the suramin/hsPLA2 gIIA complex was investigated by molecular dynamics simulations, which indicated two conformations of the bound inhibitor, which involve cationic amino-acid side chains in the active-site region and residues around positions 15 and 116 located in the N- and C-termini respectively in the substrate recognition surface. These results were correlated with isothermal titration calorimetry data, which demonstrated 2.7 suramin-binding sites on the hsPLA2 gIIA. These results suggested that suramin represents a novel class of phospholipase A2 inhibitor

As peçonhas de serpente do gênero Bothrops se caracterizam por induzir miotoxicidade, edema, coagulação e hemorragia. Por essa razão, alguns pesquisadores estão buscando por tratamentos alternativos contra os envenenamentos ofídicos com inibidores naturais e artificiais. O presente estudo tem como objetivo estudar as interações entre as PLA2s (Asp49 e Lys49) de veneno de serpente Bothrops jararacussu, denominadas BthTX-I e BthTX-II, respectivamente, e o inibidor vegetal isolado da espécie Cordia verbenacea. C. verbenacea apresenta diversas atividades farmacológicas já demonstradas, sendo utilizada também pela população como antiofídica. O extrato hidroalcoólico das folhas preparado à seco, foi submetido a técnicas cromatográficas como Sephadex LH-20 e CLAE, obtendo-se a purificação do princípio ativo antiofídico da planta, denominado ácido rosmarínico. A peçonha de B. jararacussu foi submetida à cromatografia de filtração em gel Sephadex G-75 e, à cromatografia de troca iônica. O ácido rosmarínico (AR) foi isolado do extrato metanólico de C. verbenacea e apresentou inibição da hemorragia provocada pela peçonha bruta de B. jararacussu. Em comparação, o ácido rosmarínico® também inibiu o efeito hemorrágico causado pela peçonha bruta de B. jararacussu. A atividade edematogênica provocada pelas toxinas BthTX-I e II foi avaliada e testada com os inibidores. Ambos AR e AR® não inibiram significativamente a induçào de edema. Resultados semelhantes foram obtidos com as atividades anticoagulante, e fosfolipásica. O ácido rosmarínico, AR e AR®, demonstrou alto efeito inibitório sobre a citotoxicidade e miotoxicidade induzida pela peçonha bruta e pela toxina BthTX-I. Ambos inibidores apresentou um menor efeito sobre a atividade miotóxica induzida pela toxina BthTX-II. Simulações de docking realizadas com três PLA2s e AR mostraram perfis de interações similares, reforçando as principais interações enzima-inibidor obtidas experimentalmente, relatadas na literatura. Os cálculos de derivação de farmacóforo baseados em diferentes inibidores relatados na literatura, assim como estudos de campos de interação molecular foram realizados, nos quais os resultados indicaram as principais modificações na estrutura do inibidor ácido rosmarínico necessárias para otimização. Nas simulações de screening virtual, novos potenciais inibidores de BthTX-I foram selecionados a partir de base de dados de compostos drug-like, direcionando os próximos passos aos testes biológicos, os quais serão realizados com esta fosfolipase e os novos candidatos a inibidores modelados. / Snake venoms from Bothrops genus are characterized by inducing myotoxicity, edema, thrombosis and hemorrhage. Thus, some researchers are searching for alternative treatments against ophidian poisoning with natural and artificial inhibitors. This work aimed study the interactions between PLA2s (Asp49 e Lys49) from Bothrops jararacussu snake venom, named BthTX-I and BthTX-II, respectively, and the inhibitor isolated from Cordia verbenacea plant. C. verbenacea presents several pharmacological activities already demonstrated, and it is also used by the population by its antiophidic activity. The hydroalcoholic extract prepared from the dried leaves, was submitted to chromatographic techniques as Sephadex LH-20 and HPLC, resulting in the purification of the antiophidian compound active from the plant, named rosmarinic acid. B. jararacussu snake venom was submitted to gel filtration chromatography on Sephadex G-75 and ion exchange chromatography. Rosmarinic acid (RA) was isolated from the C. verbenacea methanolic extract and it presented hemorrhage inhibition caused by crude venom from B. jararacussu. In comparison with this, Rosmaric acid® also inhibited the hemorrhagic effect caused by crude venom from B. jararacussu. Edematogenic activity caused by BthTX-I and II was evaluated and tested with the inhibitors. Both, RA e RA® did not inhibit the edema indution significantly. Similar results were obtained with the anticoagulant and phospholipasic activity. The rosmarinic acid, RA e RA®, presented high inhibitory effect for myotoxicity and cytotoxicity induced by crude venom and the toxin BthTX-I. Both inhibitors presented minor effect on myotoxicity activity induced by BthTX-II toxin. Docking simulations performed with three PLA2 and RA have shown similar interactions profiles, corroborating the main enzyme-inhibitor interactions experimentally obtained, reported in literature. Pharmacophore perception calculations based on different inhibitors reported in literature as well as molecular interaction fields studies were here carried out, whose results indicate the main changes in the structure of the rosmarinic acid inhibitor necessary to optimization. In the virtual screening simulations, novel potential BthTX-I inhibitors were selected from drug-like compounds databases, thus guiding next steps towards biological tests, which will must be performed with this phospholipase and the new inhibitor candidates modeled.

Os venenos de serpentes são misturas complexas com composição variada, possuindo constituintes orgânicos e inorgânicos. Dentre os compostos orgânicos, destacam-se as proteínas, tóxicas e/ou com altas atividades enzimáticas. Desta forma, os venenos desenvolvem importante papel na captura de presas e auxílio à digestão. Venenos de serpentes da família Viperidae apresentam ampla e variada gama de ações biológicas, como proteólise, coagulação, hemorragia, neurotoxicidade e miotoxidade. Populações de serpentes habitantes endemicamente em ilhas são bons modelos para estudos de evolução, especialmente quando comparadas a espécies de mesmo gênero que habitam o continente. Espécies ancestrais de serpentes do gênero Bothrops sofreram isolamento geográfico cerca de 9 mil anos atrás, quando no Período Pleistoceno porções de terra na região Sudeste do Brasil foram isoladas do continente, levando a formação de ilhas costeiras, devido a elevação do nível do mar. Tal isolamento deu origem a novas espécies insulares pertencentes ao gênero Bothrops. Estudos relacionados aos venenos destas espécies, suas especificidades e diferenças com relação a serpentes continentais são escassos. O Arquipélago de Alcatrazes localiza-se no litoral de São Paulo, distando aproximadamente 35 Km da costa. Não há relatos da existência de mamíferos na ilha, com exceção de morcegos. Serpentes adultas da espécie Bothrops alcatraz, endêmica da Ilha de Alcatrazes, apresentam características encontradas em serpentes juvenis do grupo das jararacas, como a dieta baseada exclusivamente em animais ectotérmicos e a composição diferenciada do veneno. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo caracterizar as principais ações do veneno da serpente B. alcatraz, espécie endêmica e ilhoa, isolando cromatograficamente suas frações. Resultados indicam no veneno de B. alcatraz apresenta as atividades coagulante sobre plasma humano, fosfolipásica, miotóxica e edematogênica mais ativas quando comparadas com as ações do veneno de B. jararaca do continente. As ações proteolítica, hemorrágica e toxicidade para camundongos são mais potentes no veneno de B. jararaca. A presença de ação neurotóxica específica para artrópodes no veneno de B. alcatraz sugere a ação de uma fosfolipase A2, a qual foi isolada cromatograficamente. As propriedades e composição do veneno de B. alcatraz indicam uma provável evolução de toxinas adaptadas a seu tipo de presa/alimento. / Snakes venoms are complex mixtures with varied composition constituted by organic and inorganic molecules. The main organic components are proteins, which can be toxic and show high enzymatic activities, thus playing important role in prey capture and digestion in snakes. Viperidae snakes family show wide range of biological actions, as proteolytic, coagulant, hemorrhagic, neurotoxic and myotoxic activities. Snake populations inhabiting endemically islands are useful models for evolution studies, specially when compared to their congeneric continental species. Bothrops species ancestors from Southeastern Brazil underwent geographic isolation about 9 thousand years ago, during the Pleistocene Period, when land portions were separated from the continent by the sea. The isolation originated new (island endemic) Bothrops species. Studies related to those snake venoms, its specialties and differences among continental species of the genera Bothrops are scarce. The Alcatrazes Archipelago is located in São Paulo coast, 35 kilometer far from the continent. There are no register of mammals in those islands, except for bats. Bothrops alcatraz is endemic from the Alcatrazes Island. Adults show some similarities to young specimens from the continental jararaca group. They feed exclusively on ectothermic animals and their venom shows a different composition. The aim of this study was to analyze the endemic island snake, B. alcatraz, venom, isolating by chromatography the venom fractions. Results indicated that B. alcatraz venom presents coagulant, phospholipase, myotoxic and edema forming activities higher than continental B. jararaca venom. The proteolytic, haemorrhagic and mice toxicity are higher on B. jararaca venom. The specific neurotoxic action in arthropods of B. alcatraz venom suggests a phospholipase A2 action, which was isolated bt cromatography. The properties and composition of B. alcatraz venom indicates a possible evolution of toxins adapted to the prey kinds.

Os venenos de serpentes contêm concentrações elevadas de fosfolipases A2 secretadas (sFLA2), que apresentam homologia com as FLA2s de mamíferos, cujos níveis estão aumentados em doenças inflamatórias. Neste estudo, investigou-se a ativação e a expressão de fatores envolvidos na formação de corpúsculos lipídicos (CLs) em células fagociticas e o papel desses fatores na resposta imune inata, induzida pela MT-III, uma sFLA2s de veneno. A MT-III induziu aumento dos níveis de triacilglicerol, colesterol e lisofosfolipideos e a ativação e expressão dos fatores PPAR-g, PPAR-d/b, SREBP2 e do CD36. Sob estimulo da MT-III, o receptor PPAR-b/d, as enzimas DGAT, ACAT e FAS foram relevantes para a formação de CLs e para a expressão da PLIN2. O CD36 participa da expressão da COX-2, sem modificar a liberação de PGE2. O TLR2 e a MyD88 foram essenciais para a formação de CLs e síntese da IL-1b e IL-10. Ainda, o TLR2 foi relevante para a liberação de PGE2, PGD2 e LTB4, enquanto MyD88 foi fundamental somente para a liberação de PGE2 e expressão da PLIN2, induzidas pela MT-III. / Snake venoms contain high concentrations of secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) with homology to mammalian PLA2s, whose levels are elevated in inflammatory diseases. In this study, we investigated activation and expression of factors involved in lipid droplets formation (LDs) and participation that factors in the innate immune response induced by MT-III, sPLA2s from snake venom, in phagocytic cells. MT-III induced increase of triacylglycerol, cholesterol and lysophospholipids levels and activation and expression of factors PPAR-g, PPAR-d/b, SREBP2 and CD36. PPAR-b/d receptor, DGAT, ACAT and FAS enzymes were relevant to LDs formation and critical to PLIN2 expression induced by MT-III. CD36 participates in COX-2 expression without modifying PGE2 release stimulated by MT-III. TLR2 and MyD88 were essential to LDs formation and IL-1b and IL-10 synthesis stimulated by MT-III. Moreover, TLR2 was relevant to PGE2, PGD2 and LTB4 biosynthesis, while MyD88 is essential only for PGE2 release and PLIN2 expression induced by MT-III.

Orientadores: Sergio Marangoni, Luís Alberto Ponce Soto / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-20T20:51:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RomeroVargas_FreyFrancisco_D.pdf: 4482249 bytes, checksum: 951ba98ea20426e2308c178f17a7680d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: Uma nova miotoxina fosfolipase A2 (BtTX-II) foi purificada a partir do veneno total de Bothriopsis taeniata através de dois passos cromatográficos, envolvendo inicialmente cromatografia de exclusão molecular, seguida de HPLC de fase reversa. BtTX-II foi caracterizada bioquimicamente através de eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida (SDS-PAGE) mostrando uma única banda eletroforética com massa relativa (Mr) de 14000 Da, em condições não reduzidas e reduzidas (DTT 1M). A pureza e massa molecular foram confirmadas por espectrometria de massa (MALDI-Tof MS), a qual determinou uma massa molecular de 13889,98 Da. BtTX-II apresentou atividade catalítica de 12,075 ± 0,138 nmoles/mg/min em presença do substrato cromogênico específico ácido 4-nitro-3-(octanoyloxy) benzoico. Análise de composição de aminoácidos da PLA2 (BtTX-II) corroborou seu caráter básico. A análise dos peptídeos trípticos foi determinada por ESI-QTof-MS/MS espectrometria de massa e as regiões contendo peptídeos internos mostraram semelhança com outras PLA2s miotóxicas botrópicas cataliticamente ativas. BtTX-II, pertencente à classe PLA2 D49, exibiu atividade ótima a pH 8,0 e temperatura de 37 ºC. Na ausência de Ca2+ e na presença de alguns íons divalentes, tais como Mg2+, Mn2+, Zn2+ e Cd2+ (10mM), a atividade fosfolipásica foi significativamente diminuída. Também foi demonstrado o efeito inibitório de crotapotinas crotálicas sobre a atividade PLA2 da BtTX-II. O efeito neurotóxico da BtTX-II foi analisado através de estudos miográficos em preparações neuromusculares "ex vivo", mostrando que BtTX-II induz um leve bloqueio na junção neuromuscular em preparações Biventer cervicis de pintainho. Tais preparações foram utilizadas para o estudo morfológico quantitativo da BtTX-II, o que mostrou uma leve atividade miotóxica "in vitro" com a concentração de 50?g de BtTX-II. O efeito miotóxico também foi avaliado através de ensaios de liberação de creatina kinase plasmática e análise histopatológica do músculo gastrocnêmio de camundongo "in vivo", com estes últimos testes foram observandos maiores mudanças morfológicas quando comparadas aos estudos "in vitro", mostrando estar diretamente relacionada com a liberação de CK. BtTX-II induz miotoxicidade local após injeção intramuscular, mas não produz miotoxicidade sistêmica após injeções intravenosa. O efeito edematogênico foi estudado através do modelo coxim plantar de camundongo e mostrou ser elevado nas primeiras horas após injeções subcutâneas, em todas as concentrações aplicadas (1- 20 ?g). O efeito citotóxico "in vitro" foi caracterizado utilizando uma cultura celular da linhagem de mioblastos/miotubos de músculo esquelético de camundongo. BtTX-II não induz citotoxicidade em mioblastos; mas BtTX-II evidenciou atividade citotóxica em miotubos, em uma concentração padrão de 20 ?g. Nossos resultados sugerem que BtTX-II atua no processo de regeneração muscular em baixas concentrações (10 ?g) durante o período de 28 dias após as injeções intramusculares no gastrocnêmio de camundongo, demonstrando ser apropriado para a análise na regeneração muscular, pois induz necrose e não acarreta lesão do tecido vascular nem nervoso, o que é de suma importância para o processo de regeneração muscular. Isto foi possível pela presença de células satélite envolvidas neste processo junto com o infiltrado inflamatório notório em todos os períodos da regeneração / Abstract: A new miotoxin phospholipase A2 (BtTX-II) was purified from Bothriopsis taeniata crude venom through two steps cromatográficos, involving molecular exclusion chromatography, as first step, and followed by RP-HPLC. BtTX-II, was characterized biochemically through electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel (SDS-PAGE) showing a single eletrophoretic band, in reduced and not reduced conditions, with relative mass (Mr) of 14000 Da. The purity and molecular mass was confirmed by mass spectrometry mass (Maldi-Tof SM), showed a molecular mass of 13889.98 Da. BtTX-II showed catalytic activity of 12.075 ± 0.138 nmoles/mg/min upon of the specific chromogenic substrate acid 4-nitro-3-(octanoyloxy) benzoic. Analysis of aminoacid composition of PLA2 (BtTX-II) corroborated its basic character. Tryptic peptide analyse were determined for ESI-QTof-MS/MS mass spectrometry and the regions containing internal peptides showed similarity with other miotoxic botropics PLA2s. BtTX-II belonging to the class PLA2 D49 exhibited an optimal activity in pH 8.0 and at 37 ºC. In the absence of Ca2+ and in presence of some divalent íons such Mg2+, Mn2+, Zn2+ and Cd2+ (10mM), the phospholipasic activity was significantly decreased. Also, it was demonstrated the inhibitory effect of crotalics crotapotins upon activity PLA2 of the BtTX-II. The neurotoxic effect of the BtTX-II was analized through myographic studies in neuromuscular preparations "ex vivo", showing that BtTX-II induce a light blockade at the neuromuscular junction on chicken Biventer cervicis preparations. Such preparations were used for quantitatives morphologic studies, were shown a light myotoxic activity "in vitro" at higher concentration. On the other hand, the myotoxic effect was evaluated through release of plasmatic creatine kinase "in vivo" and was carry out histophatologic analyzes mouse gastrocnemius muscle, with these last tests were observed larger morphologic changes when compared to studies "in vitro", showing directly related with the CK liberation. BtTX-II induces local miotoxicity after intramuscular injection, but it did not produce systemic miotoxicity after intravenous injections. The edematogenic effect was studied through the model mouse paw edema and showed to be high in the first hours after subcutaneous injections, in all applied concentrations (1-20 ?g). The cytotoxic effect "in vitro" was characterized using a cell culture of the rodent lineage of myoblasts/myotubes cells. BtTX-II did not induce citotoxicity in skeletal muscle myoblasts; however, BtTX-II showed cytotoxic activity in myotubes, both with a standard concentration of 20 ?g. Our results suggest that BtTX-II act in the process of muscular regeneration in low concentrations (10 ?g) during a period of 28 days after intramuscular injections in the mouse gastrocnemius muscle, This effect was to be appropriate for muscular regeneration analyzes because it induces necroses and it did not carry out lesion of the vascular nor nervous tissue, thus, it is of supreme importance for the process of muscular regeneration. Those results were possible by the presence of satellite cells involved in these processes together with notorious inflammatory infiltrate in every periods of the regeneration / Doutorado / Bioquimica / Doutor em Biologia Funcional e Molecular

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder with limited treatment options. Previous research has shown that metabolism of the platelet activating factor (PAF) family of lipid second messengers is impaired in AD. While PAFs are known to exacerbate glutamate excitotoxicity, signal tau hyperphosphorylation, and mediate amyloid β neurotoxicity, it is not yet clear whether cognitive decline can be ascribed to activation of the G-protein-coupled PAF receptor (PAFR). Here, I assessed whether loss of PAFR would alter Morris water maze performance in the TgCRND8 (Tg) mouse model of AD. I show that learning is impaired in Tg PAFR+/+ but not in Tg PAFR-/- mice. Together, these findings suggested that blocking PAFR-mediated glutamate overload or inhibiting PAF-synthesizing enzymes are two relevant therapeutic strategies. As traditional medicine is a major form of health care in regions like Mesoamerica, I conducted an ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by Q’eqchi’ Maya healers of southern Belize to treat symptoms relevant to AD. I collected a total of 22 plants, 19 of which were identified to the species level. None of the plant extracts used for symptoms of AD were neurotoxic when tested on cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs). I found that extracts of Margraviaceae gentlei and Gonzalagunia panamensis protected CGNs from glutamate-induced excitotoxicity, in vitro, and Peperomia hirta inhibited sPLA2 activity. These results demonstrate a pharmacological basis for Q’eqchi’ Maya traditional medicine used to treat symptoms relevant to AD, and highlight several plants with potential for future development into natural products for the treatment of AD.

Submitted by Nadir Basilio (nadirsb@uninove.br) on 2016-05-17T20:16:41Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Adriano Silvio dos Santos.pdf: 1418434 bytes, checksum: 4ac5ef78eb225e6693c107993f6ee978 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-05-17T20:16:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Adriano Silvio dos Santos.pdf: 1418434 bytes, checksum: 4ac5ef78eb225e6693c107993f6ee978 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-24 / Snakes venom of the Bothrops species induces a local inflammatory reaction, characterized by pain, edema, leukocyte migration and can be accompanied by tissue necrosis. The use of antivenom performs the function of neutralizing the greatest possible amount of circulating venom, thus minimizing its systemic effects, but its action does not extend to local manifestations, and thus require the use of another therapeutic option to control this reaction. The low level laser therapy (LLLT) is used as an alternative treatment in cases of muscle injury due to its biological effects, such as analgesics, anitinflamatory and healing. In a previous study of our lab it was found that LBP can enhance the viability of C2C12 muscle cells after the addition of B. jararacussu venom in the medium and that this effect of LBP is related to protection of the cell membrane. In the present study we analyzed the effect of LBP in the cell monolayer integrity, viability of muscle cells, exposed to injury by myotoxins BthTX - I - and BthTX - II isolated from Bothrops jararacussu venom. Cells received BthTX – I (75 μg / mL) and were immediately irradiated with LLLT Aluminum Indium Gallium Phosphate and Aluminium Gallium Arsenide, the wavelengths (λ) 685nm and 830 nm, power density 4 J/cm2, 100mW of power, total energy 1,3 J, application time of 13 and 35 seconds per point and the cells were incubated for 15, 30 and 60 minutes. The results demonstrated that BthTX – I affect cell viability in a dose dependent manner, but did not change cell integrity. The concentration of 75 μg/mL was chosen for the experiments with LBP. LLLT caused an significant increase in cell viability in all the analyzed period of time and in the λ 685 nm and 830 nm against Bothrops I toxin, however in the LBP λ 685 nm against Bothrops toxin II was effective only at 15 min, while the LBP at λ 830 was effective at 15 and 60 min. The LLLT was not able to change the LDH release at all times and wavelength used. Thus, LBP was able to protect C2C12 muscle cells against the miotoxic effect of isolated myotoxins isolated from B. jararacussu venom. Therefore, the results suggest that LLLT can be considered an effective therapeutic tool in patients bitten by snakes. / O veneno das serpentes do gênero Bothrops induz uma reação inflamatória local intensa, caracterizada por dor, formação de edema, migração leucocitária, podendo ser acompanhada por necrose tecidual. A utilização do soro antibotrópico desempenha a função de neutralizar a maior quantidade possível do veneno circulante, minimizando assim seus efeitos sistêmicos, porém sua ação não se estende às manifestações locais, sendo assim necessário o uso de outro recurso terapêutico para o controle dessa manifestação. A laserterapia de baixa potência (LBP) é uma alternativa de tratamento em situações de lesão muscular, devido a seus efeitos biológicos, tais como analgésicos, antinflamatórios e cicatrizantes. Em trabalhos anteriores realizados em nosso laboratório, verificou-se que o LBP foi capaz de aumentar a viabilidade de células musculares C2C12, após a adição do veneno de B. jararacussu e que esse efeito do LBP é relacionado a uma proteção da membrana celular. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar o efeito do LBP em células musculares C2C12 submetidas à lesão por miotoxinas (BthTX - I e BthTX - II) isoladas do veneno da serpente Bothrops jararacussu quanto a: viabilidade, descolamento celular e liberação da enzima LDH. As células receberam a BthTX – I e BthTX – II na dose 75 μg/mL e foram imediatamente irradiadas com LBP Índio Gálio Alumínio Fósforo e Arseneto de Gálio Alumínio, nos comprimentos de onda (λ) 685 nm vermelho e 830 nm infra-vermelho, de forma pontual, tempo de aplicação de 13 s e 35 s respectivamente e as células foram incubadas por 15, 30 e 60 minutos. Os resultados demonstraram que a BthTX - I e BthTX - II afetou a viabilidade celular de forma dose-dependente, sendo escolhida a dose 75 μg/mL para a realização dos experimentos com o LBP, porém não foi capaz de causar alterações na integridade. O LBP causou aumento significativo na viabilidade celular, em todos os tempos analisados no λ 685 nm e 830 nm frente à BthTX - I, entretanto o LBP no λ 685 nm e λ 830 frente a BthTX - II foi efetivo somente no tempo de 15 e 60. O LBP não foi capaz de diminuir a liberação de LDH em todos os tempos analisados e com os dois λ utilizados. Desta forma, verificou-se que o LBP foi capaz de proteger as células musculares C2C12 contra o efeito miotóxico das miotoxinas isoladas do veneno B. jararacussu e que esta proteção está relacionada ao efeito protetor a nível mitocondrial. Ainda, os resultados obtidos sugerem que o LBP pode ser considerado uma ferramenta terapêutica eficaz em pacientes picados por serpentes.

Secretory phospholipase A2 hydrolyzes phospholipids at a lipid-water interface, resulting in pro-inflammatory products being released from cell membranes. Healthy cells are resistant to cleavage by this enzyme, but apoptotic cells become susceptible to its activity. Only bilayers with certain characteristics are able to be hydrolyzed. Most recently, studies in this lab have emphasized the idea that the biophysical state of the bilayer (in terms of lipid order, spacing, and fluidity) is relevant in determining the probability of one phospholipid escaping the membrane to be hydrolyzed. Prior to this study, it had been shown that apoptotic cells undergo biophysical alterations that weaken inter-lipid interactions early in apoptosis. The purpose of this dissertation was to examine these changes in more detail, define them more clearly on the molecular level, and suggest possible mechanisms responsible for their occurrence. First, the role of increased membrane permeability in susceptibility to the phospholipase was investigated. S49 cells were treated with ionomycin or apoptotic agents and assayed for merocyanine 540 staining of the membrane and membrane permeability to a vital dye. Human group X and snake venom isoforms were active towards all treated cells, but human groups V and IIa only hydrolyzed cells that were moderately permeable to the vital dye. Different isoforms must then be sensitive to different membrane properties. Second, the role of membrane oxidation in cell membrane vulnerability to the phospholipase (specifically human group IIa) was tested. The temporal onset of lipid peroxidation was assayed during apoptosis. This correlated with the onset of susceptibility to the IIa isoform. Direct oxidizers were then used to verify this result in isolation from other apoptotic membrane changes. Third, biophysical alterations during thapsigargin-induced apoptosis were examined using TMA-DPH and Patman. Data from these probes in artificial bilayers undergoing phase transitions were used to quantify the decrease in interlipid interactions and predict a 50 -- 100-fold increase in the probability of phospholipid protrusions. Patman equilibration kinetics also revealed more molecular detail about the biophysical changes related to susceptibility. Finally, temperature- and ionomyin-induced alterations in membrane properties were compared. Both increased fluidity, but only ionomycin caused susceptibility. Patman equilibration kinetic analysis could distinguish responsible membrane properties. Actin fragmentation during apoptosis or calcium loading is proposed as the mechanism.

Tableau d'honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdorales, 2015-2016 / Les acides gras polyinsaturés oméga-3 (AGPI n-3), plus spécifiquement l’acide eicosapentaénoïque (AEP) et l’acide docosahexaénoïque (ADH), abaissent le risque de maladies cardiovasculaires (MCV) en agissant sur différents facteurs de risque dont une diminution des triglycérides (TG) plasmatiques et de l’inflammation. Toutefois, une grande variabilité interindividuelle dans la réponse cardiométabolique à la supplémentation en AGPI n-3 est observée et elle serait en partie reliée à des facteurs génétiques. Les gènes du métabolisme des lipides, dont les phospholipases A2 (PLA2), ont été modulés suite à la supplémentation de 3 g d’AEP et d’ADH/jour pendant six semaines. Des effets de génotype*supplémentation ont été observés avec des variations des gènes des PLA2 sur les niveaux de TG et de protéine C-réactive (CRP). Les résultats suggèrent que des variations sur les gènes de PLA2 expliquent en partie la variabilité interindividuelle de la réponse des TG et de la CRP à la supplémentation en AGPI n-3. / Fish oil-derived long-chain omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by lowering plasma triglyceride (TG) and inflammation levels. However, a large inter-individual variability is observed, which could be explained by genetic factors. Genes involved in metabolic pathways of n-3 PUFA, including phospholipases A2 (PLA2) had changes in their expression in individuals who consumed 3 g/day of EPA and DHA for 6 weeks. Genotype by supplementation interaction effect on TG and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels were observed for PLA2 variations. These results suggest that variations in PLA2 genes may influence plasma TG and CRP levels during a supplementation with n-3 PUFA.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Both, the cytokine Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α) and the enzyme cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) are crucial driving forces in mediating the cellular inflammatory response and are involved in ischaemic injury. During an ischaemic insult, TNF-α is endogenously generated. Apart from the recognized effects of TNF- α, such as the induction of apoptosis, proliferation and differentiation, if present in low dosages, it also mediates cytoprotective effects. Upon activation, cPLA2 contributes to the ischaemic challenge with the generation of mediators of cellular injury and apoptosis. Upon stimulation, this calcium dependent enzyme translocates to the phospholipid compartment of the cell membrane and induces the hydrolysis of sn-2 ester bonds in phospholipids. It governs the release of free fatty acids and lysophospholipids and generates role players of inflammation. We suggest a role for cPLA2 in the TNF-α mediated cytoprotection, with a distinct phosphorylation and translocation pattern. Aims The involvement of cPLA2 in TNF-α mediated cytoprotection in the C2C12 murine skeletal muscle cell line in tolerance to ischaemia was examined. To investigate the nature of the cPLA2 phosphorylation pattern, the mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) p38 and extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) as contributors to cPLA2 phosphorylation and activation, were examined at appropriate time points. To dissect out the cPLA2 interplay and dependencies with these MAPKs within the pathway context, the selective cPLA2 inhibitor arachidonyl trifluoromethyl ketone (AACOCF3) was employed and its effect on cell viability was examined. Fluorescence microscopy was used to substantiate cPLA2 activation, by assessing its cellular distribution, translocation and cell organelle target preference, using co-localization and z-stack techniques. In addition, the induction of the apoptotic pathway through analysis of caspase-3 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage was examined. The role of caspase-3 in cPLA2 turnover was addressed employing the caspase inhibitor, Z-DEVD-FMK. Methods Cells were grown in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagles Medium (DMEM) with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), and incubated under 5% CO2 conditions, until 50%-70% confluent. Using DMEM supplemented with 1% horse serum, cell differentiation into myotubes was induced. Differentiated cells were preconditioned for 30 min classically, with 0.5 ng/ml TNF-α or the cPLA2 selective inhibitor AACOCF3 (10 μM) respectively. Followed by a 60 min washout period the cells were subjected to 8 hrs simulated ischaemia. Cellular viability; and cPLA2 phosphorylation- and translocation events were assessed using Western blots and advanced immunocytochemistry and imaging techniques. Results Preconditioning with TNF-α, ischaemic preconditioning; and the use of the cPLA2 inhibitor AACOCF3, attenuated the decrease is cell viability brough about by ischaemia. Western blot analysis indicates the induction of the apoptotic pathway with caspase-3 and PARP cleavage. A significantly reduced translocation of pcPLA2 to the nuclear region in the TNF-α preconditioned group compared to the ischaemic group, as reflected by reduced mean nuclear fluorescence intensity, was observed. A z-stack analysis confirmed that the nuclear and endonuclear region was the target organelle for cPLA2. 3-dimensional co-localazation analysis of pcPLA2 with the nuclear marker nucleoporin p62 mirrored these results. Discussion and conclusion Our results provide evidence that there is a role for cPLA2 in TNF-α mediated cytoprotection. Although we do not observe a differential activation pattern in terms of cPLA2 phosphorylation at various time points within the ischaemic event, and no differential inactivation of cPLA2 via caspase-mediated cPLA2 cleavage, we describe a differential cPLA2 translocation pattern, similar to that in IPC. Through inhibition of cPLA2 translocation, a functional cPLA2 inhibition might be achieved. This would imply inhibition of the inflammatory pathway and a subsequent reduction in the generation of inflammatory mediators. In addition we describe an effect of TNF-α preconditioning on the efficacy of the caspase inhibitor Z-DEVD-FMK. Our results shed light on the survival mechanisms employed by the ischaemically challenged cell in a setting of TNF-α mediated cytoprotection. This might lead to novel approaches in the context of inflammation treatment, through agents that control differential cPLA2 trafficking within the cell. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Beide, die sitokien “Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α)” en die ensiem, sitosoliese fosfolipase A2 (cPLA2) is uiters belangrike bemiddelaars van die sellulêre inflammatoriese respons en is verder ook betrokke by isgemiese selskade. TNF-α word endogeen gegenereer tydens ‘n isgemiese intervensie. Afgesien van ‘n verskeidenheid effekte, soos die inisiëring van apoptose, sel-proliferasie en - differensiasie, bemiddel dit ook selbeskermende meganismes indien dit in lae konsentrasies in die sel teenwoordig is. Na aktivering dra cPLA2 by tot die isgemiese intervensie deur die vorming van bemiddelaars van selskade en apoptose. Hierdie kalsium-afhanklike ensiem translokeer na die fosfolipied membraankomponent na stimulering en induseer die hidrolise van die sn-2 esterbinding in die fosfolipied. Die vrystelling van vry vetsure en lisofosfolipiede word sodoende bewerkstellig wat verder gemetaboliseer kan word tot inflammatoriese bemiddelaars. Ons stel voor dat cPLA2 ‘n rol in TNF-α bemiddelde selbeskerming speel en dat dit gepaardgaan met kenmerkende fosforilerings- en translokeringspatrone. Doelwitte Die rol van cPLA2 tydens TNF-α bemiddelde selbeskerming is in ‘n C2C12 skeletspiersellyn na blootstelling aan isgemie ondersoek. Die rol van die MAPKs, p38 en ERK, is ondersoek om vas te stel of hulle betrokke is by die aktivering van cPLA2. Die selektiewe cPLA2 inhibitor, AACOCF3, is gebruik om te bepaal of die fosforilering van MAPKs ook cPLA2-afhanklik is. Die sellulêre cPLA2 verspreiding, translokering en teiken selorganelle is ook ondersoek met behulp van fluoresensie mikroskopie deur gebruik te maak van ko-lokalisering en z-plaat tegnieke. Verder, is die indusering van die apoptotiese paaie ondersoek deur tegnieke wat kaspase- en PARP kliewing meet. Die kaspase inhibitor, Z-DEVD-FMK, is gebruik om vas te stel of kaspase-3 ‘n rol speel in cPLA2 kliewing in ons selmodel. Metodes Selle is gekweek in Dulbecco’s gemodifiseerde Eagles Medium (DMEM) waarby 10% fetale kalf serum (FBS) gevoeg is, en wat geïnkubeer is in 5% CO2 totdat dit 50%-70% konfluent was. Die selle is verder gedifferensieer in miobuise deur gebruik te maak van DMEM waarby 1% perdeserum gevoeg is. Gedifferensieerde selle is vir 30 min klassiek geprekondisioneer asook respektiewelik met 0.5 ng/ml TNF-α en die cPLA2 selektiewe inhibitor, AACOCF3 (10 μM). Na ‘n 60 minute uitwas periode is die selle blootgestel aan 8 h gesimuleerde isgemie. Sellulêre lewensvatbaarheid, cPLA2 fosforilering- and translokering is ondersoek deur onderskeidelik gebruik te maak van die “Western” klad metode en gesofistikeerde immunositochemiese beeld tegnieke. Resultate Prekondisionering met TNF-α, isgemiese prekondisionering asook inhibisie van as cPLA2 met die inhibitor, AACOCF3, het ‘n beduidende toename in sellewensvatbaarheid tot gevolg gehad. Daar is ook dmv die “Western” klad tegniek bewys dat apoptose geïduseer word deur middel van kaspase-3- en PARP kliewing. Daar is insiggewend minder translokasie van cPLA2 na die nukluêre fraksie in die isgemiese groep in vergelyking met die TNF-α geprekondisioneerde groep waargeneem (die gemiddelde nukluêre fluoreserende intensiteit is bepaal om voorafgaande feit te staaf). Die cPLA2 teiken organel is geverifieer as die nukleus en die endonukluêre gebied deur middel van z-plaat analises. Drie-dimensionele kolokaliserings analises van pcPLA2 met die nukluêre merker, nucleoporin p62 het hierdie resultate bevestig. Bespreking en Gevolgtrekking Ons resultate verskaf bewyse vir ‘n rol vir cPLA2 in TNF-α bemiddelde selbeskerming. Alhoewel daar nie ‘n differensiële aktiveringspatroon in terme van cPLA2 fosforilering tydens verskeie tydspunte in die isgemiese intervensie waargeneem is nie, en ook geen kaspase-3 bemiddelde kliewing van cPLA2 nie, word ‘n differensiële translokeringspatroon soorgelyk aan die isgemiese prekondisioneringsgroep, waargeneem. Funsksionele cPLA2 inhibisie kan dus moontlik bewerkstellig word deur inhibisie van cPLA2 translokasie. Die inflammatoriese respons kan dus moontlik so inhibieer word en die vorming van minder inflammatoriese bemiddelaars tot gevolg hê. Verder het TNF-α prekondisionering ook ‘n effek op die effektiwiteit van die kaspase-inhibitor, ZDEVD- FMK. Ons resultate werp ook lig op die meganismes wat deur selle onder isgemiese toestande uitgeoefen word tydens TNF-α bemiddelde selbeskerming. Hierdie resultate mag lei tot nuwe benaderings in die konteks van behandeling teen inflammasie deur gebruik te maak van middels wat cPLA2 translokering in die sel beheer.