Global ETD Search

61	Le phénomène acheuléen en Europe Occidentale : approche chronologique, technologie lithique et implications culturelles / THE ACHEULIAN PHENOMENON IN WESTERN EUROPE : Chronological approach, lithic technology and cultural implications / IL FENOMENO ACHEULEANO IN EUROPA OCCIDENTALE : Approccio cronologico, tecnologia litica e implicazioni culturali / EL FENÓMENO ACHEULEANO EN EUROPA OCCIDENTAL : Enfoque cronológico, tecnológia litica e implicaciones culturales / DAS PHÄNOMEN DES ACHEULÉENS IM ABENDLÄNDISCHEN EUROPA : Chronologischer Ansatz, lithologische Technologie und kulturelle Auswirkungen Nicoud, Elisa 10 May 2011 (has links) La diversité historique et substantielle de l’Acheuléen d’Europe occidentale est perceptible d’un point de vue phénoménologique. Chacune des 36 séries lithiques de France, d’Angleterre, d’Italie et d’Espagne étudiées dans ce travail présente une production originale. Le phénomène bifacial peut être dissocié des autres manifestations de l’Acheuléen : les pièces bifaciales sensu stricto apparaissent massivement dans le nord de l’Europe autour de l’OIS 11 puis sur le pourtourméditerranéen vers l’OIS 9 mais sous une forme différente, engendrant des modifi cations majeures de toute la production. L’analyse critique des contextes lithostratigraphiques et la prise en compte des diversités technique, technologique ou chronologique des industries permettent de reconsidérer le paradigme de la diffusion « Out of Africa ». Tout conduit à proposer l’hypothèse d’une invention locale de la pièce bifaciale et de son évolution sur place. Le terme a trop longtemps masqué la véritable diversité du Paléolithique inférieur tout entier. C’est vers l’analyse de la pluralité des comportements humains et des sociétés qu’il faut se diriger maintenant. / The historic and substantial diversity of the Western European Acheulian can be perceived from a phenomenological standpoint. All of the 36 lithic assemblages studied in France, England, Italy and Spain provide an original production. The bifacial phenomenon can be separated from other expressions of the Acheulian. Indeed, bifacial pieces, in the strict sense, appear in great numbers in northern Europe around the OIS 11 and in the Mediterranean region around the OIS 9. However, the latter are found under different forms, which imply major modifi cations of all the production. The critical analysis of lithostratigraphic contexts and the consideration of technical, technological and chronological diversities, allow reconsidering the paradigm of the « Out of Africa » diffusion. The hypothesis of a local invention and evolution of bifacial pieces can be put forward. The use of this term has limited our perception of the Lower Paleolithic as a whole. One should now focus on analyzing the diversity of human behaviors and societies. Acheuléen Pléistocène moyen Paléolithique inférieur Europe occidentale Biface Pièce bifaciale Out of Africa Technologie lithique Analyse structurelle Analyse techno-morpho-fonctionnelle Réinvention Évolution des techniques Ligne de Movius Acheulian Middle Pleistocene Lower Paleolithic Western Europe Handaxe Bifacial piece Out of Africa Lithic technology Structural analysis Techno-morpho-functionnal analysis Reinvention Technics evolution Movius Line Soucy
62	Phylogéographie de deux reptiles iraniens (le complexe Montivipera raddei et Ophisops elegans) et implication pour la conservation / Phylogeography of two Iranian reptiles (Montivipera raddei complex and Ophisops elegans) and implication for conservation Behrooz, Roozbeh 13 January 2017 (has links) Les espèces de haute altitude (Sky-Islands) sont parmi les taxons les plus sensibles aux changements environnementaux et une meilleure connaissance de ces espèces (répartition, groupes génétiques, histoire d’évolution, etc.) est indispensable afin de définir les unités adaptées pour la conservation. Cette thèse a porté sur l’analyse moléculaire de deux gènes mitochondriaux (Cyt b et ND4) chez le groupe d’espèces Montivipera raddei et un gène mitochondrial (COI) chez l’Ophisops elegans dans les montagnes d’Iran qui sont des centres d’endémisme importants pour les reptiles. En me basant sur les données génétiques, je propose de considérer toutes les montivipère d’Iran comme une seule espèce ; Montivipera raddei comprenant trois sous-espèces ; Montivipera raddei albicornuta (nord du Zagros, Zanjan et nord-ouest de l’Iran jusqu’en Turquie), Montivipera raddei latifii (Alborz), et Montivipera raddei kuhrangica (centre du Zagros). Les temps de divergences obtenus entre les clades de montivipères semblent montrer des changements de la connectivité des populations pendant le Pléistocène qui résulte de l’effet fort des oscillations climatiques durant cette époque, notamment pendant les interglaciaires. Ce travail a aussi révélé une grande diversité génétique au sein des clades iraniens d’ophisops élégant ce qui pose la question de l’existence d’espèces/sous-espèces cryptiques en Iran. Finalement, ce travail a permis de définir des ESU pour les montivipères et l’ophisops élégant et notamment je propose que toutes les populations isolées du groupe d’espèces M. raddei et d’O. elegans montrant des haplotypes propres soient considérées comme des ESU pour la conservation. / High-altitude species (Sky-Islands) are among the most sensitive taxa to environmental changes and a better knowledge of these species (distribution, genetic groups, evolutionary history, etc.) is essential in order to define the adapted units for the conversation. This thesis focused on the molecular analysis of two mitochondrial genes (Cyt b and ND4) in the Montivipera raddei (Radde's Rock Viper) species group and a mitochondrial gene (COI) in Ophisops elegans (Snake-Eyed Lizard) in the mountains of Iran, which are important centers of endemism for reptiles. Based on the genetic data, I propose to consider all the Iranian montivipers as one species; Montivipera raddei comprising three subspecies; Montivipera raddei albicornuta (north of Zagros, Zanjan and northwestern Iran to Turkey), Montivipera raddei latifii (Alborz), and Montivipera raddei kuhrangica (central Zagros). The times of divergence between the clades of montivipers seem to show changes in the connectivity of populations during the Pleistocene, which results from the strong, effect of climatic oscillations during this period, especially during interglacial periods. This work also revealed a great genetic diversity within the Iranian clades of snake-eyed lizard, which raises the question of the existence of cryptic species / subspecies in Iran. Finally, this work made it possible to define ESUs for montivipers and snake-eyed lizards. In particular, I propose that all isolated populations of the M. raddei species group and O. elegans showing specific haplotypes to be considered as ESUs for conservation. ADN mitochondrial Sky-Islands Groupe d’espèces Montivipera raddei Ophisops elegans Refuges interglaciaires Spéciation ESU Génétique de la conservation Taxonomie Zagros Alborz Mitochondrial DNA Sky-Islands Montivipera raddei species group Ophisops elegans Pleistocene climatic fluctuations Interglacial refuges Speciation ESU Conservation genetics Taxonomy Zagros Alborz Phylogeography Reptiles
63	Contribution à l'étude des mécanismes de mise en place et d'évolution du remplissage de la Baume-Bonne (Quinson, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France) : Apports de l'analyse minéralogique et micromorphologique des dépôts phosphatés et des dépôts carbonatés Mestour, Brahim 28 November 1996 (has links) (PDF) Le remplissage Pléistocène moyen et supérieur de l'abri-grotte de la Baume-Bonne présente des transformations post-dépositionnelles profondes tant sur le plan minéralogique (néoformations) que sur le plan microstructural. Ces transformations sont variables et inégales d'une zone à l'autre et ont abouti à une perte généralisée des caractéristiques sédimentaires originelles. De ce fait, la morphologie et les faciès sédimentaires actuels sont complexes, ce qui crée d'énormes difficultés de raccords d'une zone à l'autre. A partir d'une étude minéralogique et micromorphologique, ce travail s'est intéressé à la caractérisation et au rôle de chacune de ces transformations dans l'évolution du remplissage. Sur cette base, une interprétation paléoenvironnementale et paléoclimatique des différents traits observés et un historique du remplissage et de son évolution sont proposés. L'accent est mis sur le rôle des néoformations minérales dans la perte des traits originels. Ainsi, la mise en place de la paragenèse phosphatée s'est faite aux dépens du matériel préexistant quelle que soit sa nature minéralogique (carbonatée ou silicatée ). Les mécanismes de mise en place n'ont pas de signification paléoclimatique certaine, mais possèdent une valeur paléoenvironnementale à l'échelle de la grotte. Le rôle des apports anthropiques et faunique en matières organiques et en restes osseux dans la phosphatation a été prépondérant. De même, les calcitisations secondaires se font aux dépens du matériel préexistant et n'ont qu'une signification paléoenvironnementale. Par contre, leur évolution vers des croûtes indiquerait un réchauffement du climat. L'accent est également mis sur le rôle des alternances de phases de gel et de dégel dans les restructurations et les réorganisations sédimentaires. Ces alternances provoquent la restructuration du sédiment en agrégats lamellaires ou arrondis qui sont souvent associés à des coiffes grossières et à des plages de lavages. Elles sont également responsables de la fragmentation et de la dispersion des constituants élémentaires. Ce facteur de gel-dégel est accentué par la configuration très irrégulière du substratum. L'ensemble de cette étude et les données antérieures montrent que la mise en place et l'évolution du remplissage seraient sous contrôle de facteurs morphologiques (configuration irrégulière du substratum, emplacement des dépôts vis-à-vis de l'extérieur et des parois calcaires), climatiques (principalement l'alternance de phases de gel et de dégel) et biologiques (fréquentation et apports anthropiques et fauniques). Leurs interactions variables, à la fois dans l'espace et dans le temps, donc complexes, seraient à l'origine de la complexité du remplissage de la Baume-Bonne. Baume-Bonne Sud-est de la France Pléistocène moyen et supérieur minéralogie micromorphologie transformations post-dépositionnelles paléoenvironnement paléoclimat
64	Évolution dentaire dans les populations humaines de la fin du Pléistocène et du début de l’Holocène (19000 – 5500 cal. BP) : une approche intégrée des structures externe et interne des couronnes pour le Bassin aquitain et ses marges / Dental evolution in Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene human populations (19000 – 5500 cal. BP) : a whole crown perspective in the Aquitaine Basin, southwest France, and its margins Le Luyer, Mona 07 January 2016 (has links) À partir de la fin du Pléistocène, une réduction de la taille des dents humaines et une simplification morphologique ont été observées et débattues en lien avec des changements culturels et environnementaux. Suite à de nouvelles découvertes et à la révision des contextes archéologiques de certains gisements, une réévaluation de la nature des variations de plus de 1900 couronnes dentaires est proposée pour 176 individus de la fin du Paléolithique, du Mésolithique et du début du Néolithique provenant du Bassin aquitain et de ses marges. Particulièrement, les variations de la structure interne (épaisseur de l’émail, proportions des tissus dentaires, morphologie de la jonction émail-dentine) ont été évaluées de manière non invasive grâce aux méthodes d’imagerie 3D (microtomographie) et de morphométrie géométrique afin de caractériser et d’interpréter l’évolution des couronnes dentaires selon une approche intégrée. Les résultats des analyses morphométriques montrent une discontinuité entre les populations de la fin du Pléistocène et celles du début de l’Holocène. Une réduction des dimensions externes, des épaisseurs de l’émail et des proportions des tissus est mesurée entre la fin du Paléolithique et le Mésolithique, alors que des différences majeures dans les types d’usure et la distribution de l’émail sont observées entre le Mésolithique et le Néolithique. Ces données suggèrent que les modifications induites par les changements environnementaux de l’Holocène ont eu un impact plus important sur la réduction dentaire dans les populations humaines et que les changements culturels néolithiques ont surtout affecté la distribution de l’émail. Enfin, une corrélation entre le type d’usure occlusale et la distribution de l’épaisseur de l’émail a été mise en évidence et associée à des changements de régime alimentaire. En particulier, l’épaisseur de l’émail peut évoluer rapidement comme une réponse sélective aux changements fonctionnels dans la biomécanique de la mastication. / Since the Late Pleistocene, a reduction in size and a morphological simplification of human teeth have been observed and arguably linked to cultural and environmental changes. Following new discoveries along with the revision of key archaeological contexts, a re-assessment of the nature of crown variations on more than 1900 teeth is proposed for 176 Late Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Early Neolithic individuals from the Aquitaine Basin and its margins. In particular, a non-invasive assessment of internal tooth structure variability (enamel thickness, dental tissue proportions, enamel-dentine junction morphology) has been performed using 3D imaging methods (microtomography) and geometric morphometrics in order to characterize and interpret dental evolution from a whole crown perspective. Results from the morphometric analyses show a discontinuity between Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene populations. External dimensions, enamel thicknesses and tissue proportions are reduced in Mesolithic individuals compared to those of the Late Paleolithic, while major differences are observed in occlusal wear patterns and enamel distribution between Mesolithic and Early Neolithic samples. These data suggest that environmentally-driven modifications during the Early Holocene had a major impact on dental reduction in human populations and that Neolithic cultural changes had mostly affected enamel distribution. Finally, a correlation between occlusal wear pattern and enamel thickness distribution is observed and associated with dietary changes. In particular, enamel thickness may have rapidly evolved as a selective response to functional changes in masticatory biomechanics. Microévolution Populations humaines modernes Réduction dentaire Variations anatomiques non métriques Épaisseur de l’émail Proportions des tissus dentaires Jonction émail-dentine Imagerie 3D Microtomographie Morphométrie géométrique Pléistocène Holocène Microevolution Modern human populations Dental reduction Nonmetric dental variation Enamel thickness Dental tissue proportions Enamel-dentine junction, 3D imaging Microtomography Geometric morphometrics Pleistocene Holocene
65	Methodological investigations on vegetation typology and phytogeography of rain forests of tropical Africa Senterre, Bruno B.M.L. 17 June 2005 (has links) I. An original methodological discussion is proposed on the problem of the typology of tropical rain forest’s plant communities, based on the study of forest types across gradients of continentality and elevation, within Atlantic central Africa. These investigations were based on the statement that the main problems in forest typology are related to the non-zonal or zonal character of the different vegetation types and to non considering the relations and differences between forest strata. II. Field data consisted in phytosociological homogeneous sample plots localized within different recognized phytogeographical entities, in a region of tropical Africa where these entities are known to be well conserved. A total of 37 such plots were inventoried in the region extending from the littoral forests of Ndoté, Equatorial Guinea, which are wet evergreen forests, to the continental forests of the Dja, Cameroon, known as evergreen seasonal forests. The studied region also included the oriental Atlantic forests of Equatorial Guinea, known as moist evergreen forests or caesalp forests. In various parts of this continentality gradient, some plots were localized within climax non-zonal formations, namely the submontane rain forests. The emphasis was put on the vegetation of the Monte Alén National Park. The sampling methodology was willing to be as "complete ", including all strata, "quantitative ", enumerating all individuals, and "representative ", within each stratum, as possible. These multi-layers plots were realised using nested sub-plots, with a sampling size of 100 individuals for every ligneous stratum recognized (dominant trees, dominated trees and shrubs) and a sampling size of 200m² for the herbaceous and suffrutex stratum. Forest types were defined independently for each stratum and the differences were analysed. A method was proposed for the simultaneous analysis of all floristic data, converting and standardizing the values from ligneous strata, on the one hand, and from understorey strata, on the other hand. III. Ten forest types were described using IndVal and discussed in the general context of the guineo-congolian region, from a syntaxonomic view point (agglomerative classification) and from a phytogeographical view point (divisive classification). Homologies between these two approaches are described. The proposed phytogeographical system is based on an "open " conception of hierarchical classifications, combining advantages of agglomerative and divisive classifications. In concrete terms, the non-zonal criteria, for example the submontane variants, are categorised separately and in analogy with the zonal criteria, related to the usual phytochoria. Analysis of ecological relationships for the 10 communities showed that the main variables related to the floristic variability in our mainland rain forests are elevation, rainfall, hygrometry (estimated using bryophytes cover levels) and distance to the ocean. The two extremes on the vertical microclimatic gradient, dominant trees stratum and herbaceous stratum, give similar typologies, however canonical analysis showed that for the herbaceous layer, non-zonal variables (hygrometry and elevation) were gaining more importance when the influence of the two zonal variables was attenuated. In every case, spatial autocorrelation was less important than the environment in explaining floristic variability but its role increased in the spatial arrangement of understorey species, whose dispersal capacity is generally lower than canopy trees. The phytosociological, phytogeographical and ecological description of forest types is accompanied by a physiognomical description using biological types spectrum, as well as architectural models, leaf sizes, etc. With regard to diversity, we have demonstrated that species richness was higher from upper to lower strata because of the accumulation in lower strata of species from various strata. On the other hand, the proper stratum diversity, i.e. the structural set, decreased from dominant trees to shrubs. The proper diversity of the herb layer showed relatively high figures mainly due to the higher individual density in relation to the existence of microstrata. Within the 37 sample plots, 1,050 taxa have been identified to species or morpho-species levels, for a total of 25,750 individuals. These taxa represent 442 genus among 104 families. The richest forest type is found on the foothills of the Niefang range, on the windward side. This forest type is also characterised by a high number of oligotypic genus and by species belonging to functional types indicators of glacial refuges. These functional types are defined on the basis of the dispersal capacity and on kind of stand needed for effective germination. We formulated the hypothesis that this kind of "foothills refuge ", characterised by his zonal nature, could have been one of the rare refuges for species from mainland rain forests, while montane and fluvial refuges would mainly have preserved species from non-zonal forest types: (sub)montane and riverine. Based on indicator species of submontane forests, a potential distribution map of this forest type has been realised at the Atlantic central African scale. More than 400 submontane forest localities have been mapped. These forests begin at 400m of altitude near the ocean, and progressively at higher altitude for increasing distance to the ocean. Many lowland localities also comprised submontane species, which could indicate the existence of ecological transgressions. These transgressions would allow migratory tracks for submontane species between isolated mountain ranges, not only during glacial periods, through heights at the northern and southern borders of the congo basin, but also contemporarily through the lowland riverine forest network, in the centre of this basin. Finally, a special attention has been attributed to littoral forests and to some cases of choroecological transgressions, coupled to the ecological equalization phenomenon. plant diversity foothills refuge glacial refuge environmental stability conservation rarefaction curves individuals-area curves species-area curves compensations écologiques Guinée Equatoriale Monte Alén Monts de Cristal Réserve de Ndoté rainforest transgression Monte Alén Cristal mountains strate forestière sous-bois ensemble structural groupe écologique modèles architecturaux guilde types fonctionnels synusie genres monotypiques genres paucispecifiques diversité végétale courbes aire-espèces courbes individus-espèces courbes de raréfaction courbes aire-constance aire minimale morpho-espèces pléistocène constancy-area curves minimal area structural ensemble understorey ecological group synusia oligotypic genus Réserve de Biosphère du Dja Cameroun Quaternaire glaciation refuge glaciaire refuge de pied de massifs montagneux stabilité environnementale conservation transgression forestière phytosociology plant community phytogeography open classification non-zonal nested plots forest types IndVal morphospecies pleistocene littoral forest rain forest afromontane submontane altitudinal belt glaciation Quaternary Equatorial Guinea ecological equalization continentality continentalité étage d’altitude forêt littorale forêt dense humide afromontagnard submontagnard IndVal types forestiers phytosociologie phytogéographie classification ouverte azonal relevés emboîtés multistrates monotypic genus architectural model guild plant functional type Ndoté Reserve Cameroon Dja Biosphere Reserve forest stratum forest layer understory
66	Recherches méthodologiques pour la typologie de la végétation et la phytogéographie des forêts denses d'Afrique tropicale Senterre, Bruno 17 June 2005 (has links) I. An original methodological discussion is proposed on the problem of the typology of tropical rain forest’s plant communities, based on the study of forest types across gradients of continentality and elevation, within Atlantic central Africa. These investigations were based on the statement that the main problems in forest typology are related to the non-zonal or zonal character of the different vegetation types and to non considering the relations and differences between forest strata.<p><p>II. Field data consisted in phytosociological homogeneous sample plots localized within different recognized phytogeographical entities, in a region of tropical Africa where these entities are known to be well conserved. A total of 37 such plots were inventoried in the region extending from the littoral forests of Ndoté, Equatorial Guinea, which are wet evergreen forests, to the continental forests of the Dja, Cameroon, known as evergreen seasonal forests. The studied region also included the oriental Atlantic forests of Equatorial Guinea, known as moist evergreen forests or caesalp forests. In various parts of this continentality gradient, some plots were localized within climax non-zonal formations, namely the submontane rain forests. The emphasis was put on the vegetation of the Monte Alén National Park.<p><p>The sampling methodology was willing to be as "complete ", including all strata, "quantitative ", enumerating all individuals, and "representative ", within each stratum, as possible. These multi-layers plots were realised using nested sub-plots, with a sampling size of 100 individuals for every ligneous stratum recognized (dominant trees, dominated trees and shrubs) and a sampling size of 200m² for the herbaceous and suffrutex stratum.<p><p>Forest types were defined independently for each stratum and the differences were analysed. A method was proposed for the simultaneous analysis of all floristic data, converting and standardizing the values from ligneous strata, on the one hand, and from understorey strata, on the other hand.<p><p>III. Ten forest types were described using IndVal and discussed in the general context of the guineo-congolian region, from a syntaxonomic view point (agglomerative classification) and from a phytogeographical view point (divisive classification). Homologies between these two approaches are described. The proposed phytogeographical system is based on an "open " conception of hierarchical classifications, combining advantages of agglomerative and divisive classifications. In concrete terms, the non-zonal criteria, for example the submontane variants, are categorised separately and in analogy with the zonal criteria, related to the usual phytochoria.<p><p>Analysis of ecological relationships for the 10 communities showed that the main variables related to the floristic variability in our mainland rain forests are elevation, rainfall, hygrometry (estimated using bryophytes cover levels) and distance to the ocean. The two extremes on the vertical microclimatic gradient, dominant trees stratum and herbaceous stratum, give similar typologies, however canonical analysis showed that for the herbaceous layer, non-zonal variables (hygrometry and elevation) were gaining more importance when the influence of the two zonal variables was attenuated. In every case, spatial autocorrelation was less important than the environment in explaining floristic variability but its role increased in the spatial arrangement of understorey species, whose dispersal capacity is generally lower than canopy trees. The phytosociological, phytogeographical and ecological description of forest types is accompanied by a physiognomical description using biological types spectrum, as well as architectural models, leaf sizes, etc.<p><p>With regard to diversity, we have demonstrated that species richness was higher from upper to lower strata because of the accumulation in lower strata of species from various strata. On the other hand, the proper stratum diversity, i.e. the structural set, decreased from dominant trees to shrubs. The proper diversity of the herb layer showed relatively high figures mainly due to the higher individual density in relation to the existence of microstrata. Within the 37 sample plots, 1,050 taxa have been identified to species or morpho-species levels, for a total of 25,750 individuals. These taxa represent 442 genus among 104 families. The richest forest type is found on the foothills of the Niefang range, on the windward side. This forest type is also characterised by a high number of oligotypic genus and by species belonging to functional types indicators of glacial refuges. These functional types are defined on the basis of the dispersal capacity and on kind of stand needed for effective germination. We formulated the hypothesis that this kind of "foothills refuge ", characterised by his zonal nature, could have been one of the rare refuges for species from mainland rain forests, while montane and fluvial refuges would mainly have preserved species from non-zonal forest types: (sub)montane and riverine.<p><p>Based on indicator species of submontane forests, a potential distribution map of this forest type has been realised at the Atlantic central African scale. More than 400 submontane forest localities have been mapped. These forests begin at 400m of altitude near the ocean, and progressively at higher altitude for increasing distance to the ocean. Many lowland localities also comprised submontane species, which could indicate the existence of ecological transgressions. These transgressions would allow migratory tracks for submontane species between isolated mountain ranges, not only during glacial periods, through heights at the northern and southern borders of the congo basin, but also contemporarily through the lowland riverine forest network, in the centre of this basin. Finally, a special attention has been attributed to littoral forests and to some cases of choroecological transgressions, coupled to the ecological equalization phenomenon.<p> / Doctorat en sciences agronomiques et ingénierie biologique / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished Sciences exactes et naturelles Agronomie générale Phytogeography -- Africa, Sub-Saharan Forest surveys -- Africa, Sub-Saharan Phytogéographie -- Afrique noire Inventaires forestiers -- Afrique noire submontane afromontane rain forest littoral forest pleistocene morphospecies IndVal forest types nested plots non-zonal open classification phytogeography plant community phytosociology transgression forestière conservation stabilité environnementale refuge de pied de massifs montagneux refuge glaciaire glaciation Quaternaire Cameroun Réserve de Biosphère du Dja oligotypic genus synusia ecological group understorey structural ensemble minimal area constancy-area curves pléistocène morpho-espèces aire minimale courbes aire-constance courbes de raréfaction courbes individus-espèces courbes aire-espèces diversité végétale genres paucispecifiques genres monotypiques synusie types fonctionnels guilde modèles architecturaux groupe écologique ensemble structural sous-bois strate forestière Cristal mountains Monte Alén rainforest transgression Réserve de Ndoté Monts de Cristal Guinée Equatoriale compensations écologiques species-area curves individuals-area curves rarefaction curves environmental stability glacial refuge foothills refuge plant diversity altitudinal belt Quaternary Equatorial Guinea ecological equalization continentality continentalité étage d’altitude forêt littorale forêt dense humide afromontagnard submontagnard types forestiers phytosociologie phytogéographie classification ouverte azonal relevés emboîtés multistrates monotypic genus architectural model guild plant functional type Ndoté Reserve Cameroon Dja Biosphere Reserve forest stratum forest layer understory

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