Le placenta assure les échanges materno-fœtaux et possède une fonction endocrine autonome. Les hormones placentaire lactogène (hPL) et chorionique gonadotrope (hCG) sont synthétisées par le syncytiotrophoblaste. A ce jour, les mécanismes impliqués dans le contrôle de la sécrétion de ces deux hormones ne sont pas connus. In vitro, l’influx d’ions Ca2+ entraîne une augmentation immédiate et soutenue de la libération d’hPL et d’hCG à partir d’explants de placentas à terme. En outre, l’élévation de la concentration extracellulaire en albumine, principale protéine maternelle circulante en contact direct avec le trophoblaste, stimule de manière immédiate et transitoire la libération d’hPL et d’hCG. L’objectif de nos travaux a été de vérifier la spécificité de l’activité sécrétagogue de l’albumine au niveau du placenta, de caractériser les messagers cellulaires potentiellement impliqués dans la libération d’hPL et d’hCG, et de définir l’interaction entre l’albumine et le trophoblaste, en utilisant des explants provenant de placentas humains à terme. Nos travaux démontrent que la riposte sécrétoire à l’albumine (5%, m/v) est largement mimée par d’autres agents colloïdaux (dextran et polygéline). Cette stimulation colloïdale de la libération d’hPL et d’hCG impliquerait une mobilisation de Ca2+ à partir de réserves intracellulaires. L’intervention de 3 messagers cellulaires a été envisagée: les IPs/DAG, l’AMPc, et le GMPc. Le fluorure de sodium, la forskoline, ou le nitroprussiate sodique, activateurs connus de la production respective des IPs, de l’AMPc, et du GMPc, augmentent de manière significative les taux placentaires de chacun de ces messagers, sans toutefois affecter la libération d’hPL ou d’hCG. De plus, l’élévation de la concentration extracellulaire en albumine (5%, m/v) ne modifie pas les taux des IPs, de l’AMPc et du GMPc dans les explants placentaires, tandis qu’elle stimule la sécrétion hormonale. Ces systèmes de signalisation, bien que fonctionnels au niveau du trophoblaste, ne joueraient donc pas un rôle majeur dans la régulation de la libération d’hPL et d’hCG. Nos résultats mettent en évidence une internalisation rapide d’albumine marquée, avec de l’125I ou de la fluorescéïne, dans le syncytiotrophoblaste. Une large fraction de cette albumine est recyclée, intacte, vers la circulation maternelle selon un processus sensible à l’abaissement de la température et indépendant du cytosquelette. L’albumine marquée restant dans les explants placentaires est partiellement dégradée. Trois mécanismes ont été envisagés pour expliquer ces mouvements d’entrée et de sortie de l’albumine au sein du placenta humain: l’endocytose médiée par l’albondine via les caveolae, le système des coated pits clathrine-dépendant, et l’endocytose médiée par la mégaline. Par immunohistochimie, nous avons montré que, dans le tissu placentaire, la caveoline-1, protéine caractéristique des caveolae, est localisée uniquement dans l’endothelium des capillaires fœtaux. La clathrine, au niveau des coated pits, et la mégaline se trouvent au contraire dans le syncytiotrophoblaste. La méthyl-b-cyclodextrine et l’hydrochlorure de chlorpromazine, inhibiteurs d’une endocytose dépendant de la clathrine, réduisent significativement l’internalisation placentaire de l’albumine marquée. Par contre, le DIDS ou le NPPB, susceptibles de perturber l’endocytose médiée par la mégaline, n’affectent pas la captation d’albumine marquée par les explants placentaires. L’albumine pénétrerait donc dans le syncytiotrophoblaste principalement par un processus clathrine-dépendant. La mégaline ne jouerait ici qu’un rôle mineur dans l’entrée de la protéine. Un tel processus de recyclage de l’albumine pourrait être similaire à celui décrit pour les immunoglobulines G au niveau du syncytiotrophoblaste. Ces mouvement d’entrée et de sortie de l’albumine ne semblent pas associés à la stimulation de la libération d’hPL et d’hCG par l’albumine. Ils pourraient par contre participer significativement, étant donné leur ampleur, à la nutrition fœtale. L’albumine est en effet un transporteur notoire d’ions et d’acides gras, molécules qui pourraient être acheminées au fœtus via le phénomène de recyclage placentaire de l’albumine mis en évidence par ce travail. / The human placenta is the site of all maternal-fetal exchanges, and is also an active endocrine organ. Placental lactogen (hPL) and chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) hormones are synthesized by the syncytiotrophoblast. So far, the mechanisms involved in the regulation of both hormones secretion remain elusive. In vitro, calcium inflow causes an immediate and sustained rise in the hPL and hCG releases from human term placenta explants. Moreover, increasing the extracellular concentration of albumin, the major maternal plasma protein in direct contact with the human trophoblast, stimulates the hPL and hCG releases in an immediate and transient way. Our study have aimed to check the specificity of this secretory effect of albumin, to investigate the potential cellular messengers involved in the hPL and hCG releases, and to define the interaction between albumin and the throphoblast layer, using human term placenta explants. Our results indicate that the triggering effect of albumin (5%, w/v) is largely mimicked by two other colloidal agents (dextran and polygelin). This “colloidal” stimulation of the hPL and hCG releases would involve the mobilization of calcium from intracellular pools. Three cellular messengers have been considered to mediate this process: the IPs/DAG, the cAMP, and the cGMP. Sodium fluoride, forskolin, or sodium nitroprusside, known activators of respectively the IPs, cAMP, and cGMP production, significantly increase the placental content of each of those messengers, without modifying the hPL and hCG releases. In addition, raising the extracellular concentration of albumin does not cause any change in the placental level of IPs, cAMP, and cGMP, while stimulating the hormonal release. These three signaling pathways are thus functional in human term trophoblast but do not appear to significantly modulate the hPL and hCG secretions. Our findings show that albumin, labeled with 125I or with fluorescein, is rapidly internalized into the syncytiotrophoblast. Thereafter, the intact protein is largely recycled to the maternal circulation, through a temperature-sensitive and cytoskeleton-independent process. The labeled albumin remaining in placental explants is partially degraded. Three different mechanisms could participate to the albumin entry into the human placenta: the albondin-mediated endocytosis via the caveolae, the clathrin-dependent coated pits system, and the megalin-mediated endocytosis. Using immunohistochemistry, caveolin-1, marker of the caveolae, is localized in the endothelium of the fetal capillaries and not in the syncytiotrophoblast. By contrast, clathrin and megalin are observed only in the syncytiotrophoblast. Methyl-b-cyclodextrin, and chlorpromazine hydrochloride, known inhibitors of the clathrin-dependent endocytotic process, significantly reduce the placental uptake of labeled albumin. On the other hand, DIDS or NPPB, able to perturb the megalin-mediated endocytosis, do not affect the labeled albumin uptake. Thus, albumin seems to be internalized into the syncytiotrophoblast mainly through a clathrin-dependent mechanism. Megalin would only play a minor role in this process. Such movements of albumin in the human placenta may be similar to the recycling process reported for IgG at that site. The placental apical recycling of albumin is not associated to the albumin triggering effect on the hPL and hCG releases. This quantitatively significant internalization process may participate to the fetus’ nutrition. Indeed, Albumin carries ions and fatty acid, which could be brought to the fetus via the protein recycling evidenced by our study.

Les cellules dendritiques (DCs) jouent un rôle essentiel dans la réponse immunitaire. En effet leur fonction de présentation de l’antigène les place au cœur de l’induction de la réponse immunitaire adaptative. Ceci, les rends vulnérables aux attaques des agents pathogènes. En effet de nombreux agents pathogènes détournent la réponse des DCs. Je me suis donc proposé d’étudier la réponse des DCs à Tropheryma whipplei, Coxiella burnetii, Brucella abortus et Orientia tsutsugamushi. J’ai pu mettre en évidence un défaut de maturation des DCs infectées par C. burnetii et B. abortus, liée à un défaut de la voie de l’interféron (IFN) de type I et de secretion de l'IFN-b. La deuxième partie de ma thèse replace le système immunitaire inné dans le cadre de l’immunité tissulaire humaine. Je me suis premièrement intéressé aux macrophages placentaires. J’ai pu démontrer que la capacité des macrophages placentaires à former des MGCs est altérée lors d’une chorioamniotite, ce qui laisse supposer que ces cellules géantes jouent un rôle dans le maintient de la tolérance fœto-maternelle. Deuxièmement je me suis intéressé aux DCs placentaires (plaDCs). J’ai ainsi put démontrer que les plaDCs sont de véritables DCs myéloïdes conditionnées par leur environnement direct ou hormonal au cours de la grossesse. Mon travail illustre deux concepts, le premier démontre la nécessité d’utiliser des techniques à haut débit pour identifier les perturbations induites par plusieurs agents pathogènes. Le deuxième démontre que l’environnement des cellules immunitaires participe fortement à leurs réponses face à des agents pathogènes mais également sur leur phénotype et fonction. / Dendritic cells (DCs) play a key role in the immune response. Indeed, their antigen presenting function allows them to be considered as the main inducers of adaptive response. This pivotal role also makes vulnerable to pathogen attacks. Indeed, numerous pathogens target DC response to avoid a microbicidal adaptive immunity to take place. To understand these mecanisms, I investigated the response of DCs to T. whipplei, C. burnetii, B. abortus and O. tsutsugamushi. I could highlight a phenotypic but not functional defect of maturation in DCs infected by C. burnetii and B. abortus, which was related to a defect in type I IFN response. Indeed, C. burnetii and B. abortus did not induce the production of IFN-b and induced an abnormal phosphorylation of MAPKs, known to participate to DC maturation. In this study, I could demonstrate that C. burnetii and B. abortus interfere with type I IFN response. The second part of my thesis dealt with innate immune system in the human tissue. First I interested myself in placental macrophages. I demonstrated that placental macrophages ability to form MGCs was altered in chorioamnionitis, suggesting that MGCs play a role in tolerance as they disappear in an infectious pathology. Second, I interested myself in placental DCs (plaDCs) for which I could conclude that plaDCs are true myeloid DCs that are polarized by their microenvironment. My work highlight two concepts, the first one demonstrate the necessity of high throughput methods for the analysis of cell response to several pathogens. The second concept demonstrates that direct environment or hormones can affect immune cells response to pathogen but also their phenotype and function.

Charles University Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové Department of Pharmacology and toxikology Student: Zuzana Matiašková Supervisor: doc. PharmDr. Martina Čečková, Ph.D. Title of diploma thesis: Role of selected ABC and SLC transporters in transmembrane permeability of maraviroc: effect on transport in placenta Antiretroviral drug maraviroc is an inhibitor of CCR5-trophic HIV virus and belongs to the group of entry inhibitors. Nowadays, maraviroc is administered as part of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) primarily in adults, children over the age of two and pregnant women to reduce the risk of transmission of HIV to the fetus. The knowledge of interactions of maraviroc with drug transporters in placenta is crucial for optimizing the therapy during pregnancy, both in terms of efficacy and potential adverse effects. Maraviroc is known substrate of ABCB1 transporter, which plays a protective role to the fetus by its efflux activity in the apical membrane of trophoblast. However, the results of recent study employing dually perfused human placenta suggest involvement of other transport mechanisms in the maraviroc transplacental pharmaocokinetics, especially those operating in the opposite direction to ABCB1. The aim of this study was to evaluate in vitro studies whether, besides ABCB1,...

Le nombre d’enfants nés par Assistance Médicale à la Procréation (AMP) dans le monde est estimé à plus de 5 millions, représentant jusqu’à 4% des naissances. Environ 10% des couples en âge de procréer sont actuellement infertiles, et leur apporter des techniques pour devenir parents est devenu un problème de santé publique. Cependant, l’innocuité de ces techniques n’a pas été totalement démontrée. Notamment, le risque de pathologies d’origine placentaire pourrait être augmenté. De plus, des issues périnatales défavorables, un risque majoré de malformations majeures et de pathologies liées à l’empreinte ont été rapportés chez ces enfants. Ceci soulève la question d’une éventuelle vulnérabilité épigénétique induite par l’AMP. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse était d’étudier la régulation épigénétique des gènes soumis à empreinte (GSE) et des éléments transposables (TE) dans le placenta et le sang de cordon d’enfants conçus par AMP comparés à des enfants conçus naturellement. En guise d’introduction, nous avons rédigé une revue détaillée des modifications phénotypiques et épigénétiques induites par l’AMP dans les embryons, le placenta et le sang de cordon chez l’Homme et sur les modèles animaux.Au cours de cette thèse, une cohorte de presque 250 patientes a été incluse prospectivement, répartie en 4 groupes de patientes selon la technique d’AMP et 4 groupes de témoins selon la durée d’infertilité.A partir de cette cohorte, la première question posée a été l’effet de la Fécondation in vitro (FIV) sur la méthylation de l’ADN et/ou la transcription des GSE et TE dans le sang de cordon et le placenta à la naissance. Pour cela, nous avons sélectionné 51 patientes enceintes après FIV avec ou sans ICSI avec transfert d’embryon frais à J2 et les avons comparées à 48 témoins enceintes dans l’année après l’arrêt de la contraception. Nous avons étudié la méthylation de l’ADN et l’expression de 3 GSE et 4 TE. Les niveaux de méthylation de l’ADN placentaire pour H19/IGF2, KCNQ1OT1, LINE-1 et ERVFRD-1 et le niveau d’expression placentaire d’ERVFRD-1 étaient plus bas dans le groupe FIV/ICSI que dans le groupe contrôle. Ces modifications épigénétiques pourraient faire partie des mécanismes de compensation développés pendant la grossesse après AMP, comme discuté dans notre revue.Ensuite, nous avons voulu déterminer si ces changements de méthylation de l’ADN des GSE pouvaient être associés à des modifications des histones. A partir de la cohorte précédente, nous avons sélectionné 16 patientes du groupe FIV/ICSI avec des niveaux de méthylation dans le placenta inférieurs au 5ème percentile pour au moins un des GSE étudiés. Elles ont été appariées à 16 témoins sur la parité, le sexe du nouveau-né et l’âge gestationnel à l’accouchement. Des marques permissives (H3K4me2 et me3 et H3K9ac) et répressives (H3K9me2 et me3) ont été étudiées. Les résultats ont révélé une quantité significativement augmentée de H3K4me2 dans le groupe FIV/ICSI pour H19/IGF2 et KCNQ1OT1. La quantité des deux marques répressives pour H19/IGF2 et SNURF était significativement abaissée dans le groupe FIV/ICSI.Ces données montrent que l’hypométhylation de l’ADN au niveau des GSE pourrait être associée à une augmentation des marques permissives et une diminution des marques répressives des histones, ce qui permettrait de favoriser un état « actif » de la chromatine au niveau de l’allèle normalement réprimé.Nos résultats, ainsi que les données de la littérature, renforcent l’hypothèse de potentiels mécanismes mis en place dans le placenta après AMP, utiles pour compenser des anomalies précoces de la placentation, qui seraient écrits à travers des modifications épigénétiques comme la méthylation de l’ADN mais aussi les modifications des histones.Bien que certaines questions restent en suspens, cette thèse a permis de bâtir les fondations de travaux futurs, notamment pour étudier l’impact de la congélation/décongélation des embryons et le rôle joué par l’infertilité en elle-même. / It is estimated that more than five million children have been born by Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) worldwide, representing up to 4% of all births. As around 10% of reproductive-aged couples are currently infertile, providing them with treatment options is a public health issue. However, the safety of these techniques has not been fully demonstrated. Notably, the rate of placenta-related adverse pregnancy outcomes could be increased after ART. Moreover, adverse perinatal outcomes, a higher risk of major malformations and imprinting disorders have also been reported in children born following ART. These issues combined raise the question of a potential ART-induced epigenetic vulnerability.The aim of this thesis was to investigate the epigenetic regulation of imprinted genes (IGs) and transposable elements (TEs) in the placenta and cord blood of children conceived by ART and to compare them to children conceived naturally.By way of introduction, we wrote a comprehensive review about phenotypic and epigenetic modifications induced by ART in embryos, placenta and cord blood either in human or animal models.Then, an extensive cohort of almost 250 patients was prospectively included, resulting in 4 groups of ART techniques and 4 groups of controls stratified on the time to pregnancy.From this cohort, the first question we investigated was the effect of in vitro fertilization (IVF) on DNA methylation and/or transcription of TEs and IGs in cord blood and placenta collected at birth. For this purpose, we selected 51 pregnant women after IVF with fresh embryo transfer at day -2 and compared them with 48 controls pregnant within 1 year of stopping contraception. We studied the DNA methylation and expression of 3 imprinted DMRs and 4 TEs. DNA methylation levels for H19/IGF2 and KCNQ1OT1 DMRs, LINE-1 and ERVFRD-1 in the placenta were lower in the IVF/ICSI group than in the control group. The expression level of ERVFRD-1 in the placenta was also lower in the IVF/ICSI group than in the control group. These modifications in epigenetic regulation may influence some compensation mechanisms developed throughout pregnancy after ART, as discussed in our review.We then intended to determine if these DNA methylation changes in IGs were associated with histone modifications. From the previously mentioned cohort, we selected the 16 patients from the IVF/ICSI group who presented with below the 5th percentile of percentage placenta DNA methylation for at least one of the previously studied DMRs. These patients were compared with 16 controls matched for parity, new-born sex, and gestational age at delivery. Permissive (H3K4me2 and me3 and H3K9ac) and repressive (H3K9me2 and me3) histone marks were studied. The results revealed a significantly higher quantity of H3K4me2 in the IVF/ICSI group than in the natural conception group for H19/IGF2 and KCNQ1OT1 DMRs. The quantity of both repressive marks at H19/IGF2 and SNURF DMRs was significantly lower in the IVF/ICSI group than in the natural conception group.These data demonstrate that DNA hypomethylation at imprinted DMRs may be associated with an increase in permissive histone marks and a decrease in repressive histone marks. This is consistent with a more “active” chromatin conformation on the normally repressed allele.Our findings, together with the literature data, reinforce the hypothesis that some mechanisms are established in the placenta after ART, probably to mediate placental plasticity and compensate primary disorders in trophoblastic invasion, and written through epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation but also histone modifications.Although some questions remain unanswered, this thesis paves the way for further original studies, notably to assess the impact of frozen-thawed embryo transfer and to decipher the role of infertility per se.

O objetivo deste estudo foi caracterizar morfologicamente o desenvolvimento inicial da gestação bovina proveniente de monta natural, com idades compreendidas entre 15 a 70 dias, e de fecundação in vitro (FIV) com 35 dias, com ênfase no desenvolvimento placentário inicial, e diferenciação das estruturas extra embrionárias. Para tanto, foram utilizados 141 conceptos, provenientes de monta natural, e sete conceptos obtidos pela técnica de FIV. Após as coletas, os conceptos foram dissecados, mensurados macroscopicamente e fotodocumentados. As membranas extra-embrionárias foram cortadas em fragmentos de 5 cm2, e, em seguida fixadas em paraformoldeído 4%, para análise por microscopia de luz, e glutaraldeído 2,5%, para utilização em microscopia eletrônica de varredura e transmissão. As membranas extra-embrionárias e fetais apresentaram graus variáveis de desenvolvimento ao longo dos períodos analisados. O aparecimento macroscópico da vascularização do alantóide, sua tentativa de se fundir com o cório e o aparecimento efetivo dos primeiros cotilédones em desenvolvimento, foram eventos observados em embriões a partir de 1,9±0,27 cm de \"Crown-Rump\" (CR) (30 a 40 dias da gestação). O CR médio, o peso do embrião, o peso do saco gestacional e os comprimentos do cório e âmnio aumentaram gradativamente com o evoluir da gestação. O epitélio alantoidiano apresentou um dimorfismo celular a partir de 0,9 cm de CR (15 a 20 dias de gestação), porém, mostrou-se imaturo até o feto atingir o comprimento de 7,2 cm de CR (60 a 70 dias da gestação). O trofoblasto apresentou células mononucleadas e células gigantes binucleadas em diferentes níveis ao longo da gestação. O saco vitelino persistiu até 70 dias de gestação, e o seu epitélio apresentou indícios de atividade funcional até 50 dias de gestação. De todos os parâmetros mensurados na análise macroscópica, somente o comprimento o CR e o saco vitelino apresentaram diferença significativa entre os conceptos de monta natural e de FIV. Nos conceptos de monta natural, o comprimento do saco vitelino foi de 5,53 cm, em média, e nos conceptos de FIV, de apenas 1,07 cm. Todavia, faz-se necessário analisar um número maior de animais submetidos a FIV para corroborar a diferença encontrada nestas medidas. Os resultados sugerem ainda a existência de uma placenta vitelínica ativa, importante para a manutenção da gestação, que se estabelece temporariamente entre a placenta coriovitelínica e alantovitelínica transitória e a placenta cório-alantóide definitiva. / The main goal of this study was to describe morphology and the early gestational development of 15 to 70 day-old bovine embryos obtained by natural mating and 35 day-old bovine embryos obtained by in vitro fertilization (IFV) technique. One hundred and forty-one concepts originated by natural mating and seven by IVF technique were used. All concepts were dissected, macroscopically measured and photographed. Extraembryonic membranes were cut in 5 cm2 fragments and fixed in 4% paraformoldehyde for light and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and in 2.5% glutaraldehyde for Transmition Electron Microscopy (TEM). Ali membranes showed different stages of development during analyzed periods. The beginning of allantois macroscopic vascularization, the attempt of fusion between allantois and chorium membranes and the effective development of the first cotyledons were observed in 30-to-40 day-old embryos with 1.9± 0.24 cm of Crown-Rump (CR) length. The average CR, the embryos and gestational sac weight, the chorion and amnion length increased during gestation. The allantoic epithelia showed a cellular dimorphism with 0.9 em CR, however, the maturation has not happened until the foetal length of 7.2 em CR. The trophoblast showed different levels of mononucleate cells and binucleate giant cells. The yolk sac persisted until 70 days of gestation and the epithelium seemed functionally activated until 50 days of gestation. The CR and yolk sac size were the only measured macroscopic parameter showingdifference between natural mating and FIV concepts. Yolk sac size presented average values of 5.53 cm and 1.07 cm for natural mating and FIV concepts, respectively. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze a higher number of FIV embryos to corroborate that observed yolk sac size difference. All results obtained in this study suggest the existent of an active vitelline placenta, important to the gestational maintenance and temporarily establish between the transitory choriovitelline placenta and the permanent chorioallantoic placenta.

Os fatores de crescimento vascular endotelial (VEGF) e o fibroblástico básico (bFGF) são reguladores importantes do desenvolvimento e função placentária. Os efeitos destes na expressão da enzima esteroidogênica aromatase P450 (P450arom) na placenta bovina em diferentes estágios gestacionais (90 a 270 dias) foram avaliados através de imunocitoquímica. Além disso, comparou-se a influência destes entre células placentárias de bovinos clonados e não clonados aos 270 dias. A aromatase P450 foi localizada exclusivamente no citoplasma das células trofoblásticas gigantes e sua expressão foi menor aos 150 dias de gestação, em relação às demais idades (p<0,05). O VEGF (50 ng/ml) influenciou significativamente a expressão da P450arom aos 150 e 270 dias, enquanto o bFGF (10 ng/ml) foi efetivo em estimular essa expressão particularmente no final da gestação (270 dias). Os dois fatores combinados (bFGF+VEGF) inibiram a expressão da P450arom no terço inicial (90 dias), mas, por outro lado, estimularam-na aos 150 e 270 dias (p<0,05). Nos clones, a expressão da P450arom, nos grupos controle e VEGF, foi semelhante a dos animais não clonados aos 270 dias de gestação, porém, o bFGF e os dois fatores combinados inibiram-na significativamente (p<0,05). Em todos os grupos analisados, a expressão da P450arom apresentou característica ascendente em função dos dias de cultivo, atingindo concentração máxima após 96 horas de incubação. Assim, o presente estudo demonstrou efeitos distintos e estágio-específicos dos fatores de crescimento bFGF e VEGF na secreção de estrógenos na placenta bovina via modulação da expressão da aromatase P450 in vitro. Conclui-se que estes fatores de crescimento agem como potentes moduladores de enzimas esteroidogênicas e que, sob as condições de cultivo estabelecidas, as células placentárias de bovinos clonados apresentam padrão de resposta distinto quando comparadas com células de bovinos não clonados de mesma idade gestacional. / Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) are important regulators of placental development and function. Their effects on the steroidogenic enzyme aromatase P450 (P450arom) expression from bovine placenta at different gestational stages (90 - 270 days) were evaluated by immunocytochemistry. Moreover, we compared the effects of these growth factors on P450arom expression between cloned and non cloned bovine placental cells. P450arom was localized exclusively in trophoblast giant cells cytoplasm, and its expression reached lowest levels at day 150 of gestation in comparison to the remaining evaluated gestational stages. VEGF (50 ng/mL) influenced significantly P450arom expression at days 150 and 270, whereas bFGF (10 ng/mL) was effective in stimulating P450arom expression particularly during late gestation (day 270). The two factors combined (bFGF+VEGF) inhibited P450arom expression during early gestation (day 90), but, in contrast, stimulated it at days 150 and 270 of pregnancy (P<0.05). In cloned bovine placental cells, P450arom expression was similar to non-cloned cells in the control and VEGF groups, however, bFGF and both factors together inhibited it significantly (P<0.05). In all groups analyzed, P450arom expression presented rising pattern over the duration of the culture, reaching maximal values at 96 hours of incubation. Thus, the present study demonstrated distinct and stage-specific effects of these growth factors on bovine placenta P450arom expression in vitro. We concluded that these growth factors act as potent steroidogenic enzymes regulators, and, under the established culture conditions, placental cells from cloned bovines presented distinct answer pattern compared to non cloned placental cells at the same gestational stage.

As serpentes pitvipers Crotalus durissus e Bothrops jararaca apresentam um ciclo reprodutivo sazonal com um estágio de desenvolvimento folicular ativo (vitelogênese Tipo II) no final do verão e início de outono. A cópula ocorre no outono (março até maio) e a gestação na primavera até o início do verão quando os nascimentos acontecem (Dezembro até Março). Depois do parto as serpentes permanecem em estado de quiescência folicular, o que as impede de reproduzir na próxima estação do mesmo ano. Assim, cada fêmea madura da população reproduz-se a cada dois anos caracterizando um ciclo reprodutivo bienal. A morfologia do trato reprodutivo em ambas as espécies mostra ovários e ovidutos assimétricos. Cada oviduto é dividido em três regiões distintas, a saber o infundíbulo, o útero (posterior e anterior) e a vagina. A assincronia entre a vitelogênese e a fertilização promove uma estocagem de esperma obrigatória. Esse processo ocorre na porção posterior do útero, por meio de uma contração muscular. Estudos morfofisiológicos do oviduto da jararaca e da cascavel combinados, com o uso de microscopias de luz, transmissão e varredura nunca foram conduzidos antes. A anatomia macroscópica do útero depois da cópula é caracterizada por uma torção e uma contração da musculatura uterina lisa longitudinal, a qual forma uma espiral. O útero permanece visivelmente contraído até a ovulação em setembro (início de primavera). O desenvolvimento embrionário ocorre no útero. Cada ovo ou embrião é isolado por uma constrição que funciona como uma implantação. A íntima aposição epitélio corioalantóico com o epitélio uterino indica que a placenta é do tipo epiteliocorial. As especializações da alantoplacenta em ambas as espécies caracteriza a placenta como (Tipo II). Em ambas as serpentes o oviduto parece ser um órgão capaz de exercer funções diferentes como a retenção e estocagem de esperma, manutenção e transporte dos ovos, fertilização e manutenção do embrião (gestação e placentação uterina). Machos de Bothrops e Crotalus mostram dois testículos alongados que se comunicam bilateralmente na cloaca por meio dos ductos deferentes convolutos. O diâmetro mais largo do ducto deferente, na porção distal foi observado no verão e outono, devido a espermiogênese, que ocorre um pouco antes da cópula. Em ambas as espécies observam-se um aumento dos testículos na primavera e verão provavelmente relacionada a espermatogênese, a qual também não é sincronizada com a cópula (outono) e a fertilização (setembro/outubro). Todas estas estratégias fisiológicas e morfológicas, tanto em machos quanto em fêmeas das duas espécies de serpentes promovem a liberação simultânea dos gametas no início da primavera (setembro), de modo a tornar harmônico o ciclo reprodutivo dos machos e das fêmeas. / The neotropical pitvipers Crotalus durissus and Bothrops jararaca show a sazonal reproductive cycle with an active stage of follicular development (vitellogenesis Type II) in late austral autumn and winter. Mating occurs in early to middle autumn (March to May) and gestation occurs in spring up to early summer when birth takes place (December up to March). After parturition snakes show a follicular quiescence which prevents them to reproduce in the following season of the same year. Therefore they skip one reproductive season characterizing a biennial reproductive cycle. Morphology of the reproductive tracts in both species showed the presence of unpaired ovaries and oviducts. Each oviduct is divided in four distinct regions, namely infundibulum, posterior and anterior uterus, and vagina. The lack of synchrony between vitellogenesis and fertlization, makes female store sperm obligatory. Sperm storage in both snakes occurs in the posterior portion of the uterus by means of a uterine muscle contraction and convolution. Morphological studies of the oviduct of jararaca and rattlesnakes combining the use of LM, TEM and SEM has never been carried out before. Macroscopical anatomy of the uterus after mating is characterized by convolution and contraction of the longitudinal smooth musculature which formed a spiral. The uterus remains visibly convoluted until ovulation occurs in September (early spring). Embryo development occurs in the uterus; each egg or embryo is isolated by a uterine short constricted segment that probably works as an implantation chamber like a placenta. The intimate apposition of the uterine lining with the chorioallantois indicates that the placenta is epitheliochorial type. The allantoplacenta, in both species develop folds in uterine and embryonic epithelia characterizing the second category of placenta (Type II). In both the species the oviduct has demonstrated to be an organ capable of some different functions such as sperm retaining and storage, egg uptake and transport, fertilization, maintenance of the embryo (uterine gestation and placentation) and parturition. Males of Bothrops and Crotalus show two elongated testes which communicate bilaterally with the cloaca through the coiled deferent ducts. The largest diameter of deferent ducto, was observed in summer and autumn, due to intense spermiogenesis, just before the mating season. In both species an increase in size of the testes was observed in spring and summer probably related with seasonal spermatogenesis, which is asynchronous in relation to mating (autumn). All these physiological and morphological strategies both in male and female B. jararaca and C. Durissus promote simultaneous liberation of gamets in early spring (september), in such a way to make reproductive cycle harmonic in these crotaline pitvipers.

Na inativação do cromossomo X (ICX) um dos dois cromossomos X presentes nas fêmeas de mamíferos placentários é silenciado transcricionalmente. Esse é um mecanismo de compensação de dose que assegura que a quantidade dos produtos gênicos oriundos do cromossomo X esteja em equilíbrio entre machos e fêmeas. A ICX pode ocorrer de modo aleatório, onde cada célula escolhe ao acaso qual será o cromossomo X inativado: cromossomo X paterno ou cromossomo X materno; ou de forma \"imprintada\" (termo adaptado do inglês imprinted), ou seja, dependente da origem parental do cromossomo X. Enquanto nas fêmeas marsupiais a inativação ocorre de forma \"imprintada\", sendo o X paterno inativado em todos os tecidos, nos mamíferos eutérios a ICX nos tecidos somáticos ocorre de modo aleatório. Porém alguns eutérios mantiveram o mecanismo \"imprintado\" de ICX exclusivamente nos tecidos extraembrionários, como ratos e camundongos. Em humanos, o estado controverso da ICX em tecidos extraembrionários foi reavaliado por nosso grupo utilizando uma análise mais ampla e identificou-se um padrão aleatório (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010), demonstrando a importância de se realizar uma análise global para se determinar o perfil de atividade do cromossomo X. Em bovinos o padrão de ICX em placenta não está claro. Ele foi verificado analisando-se a expressão de um único gene, e os autores concluíram que o padrão era \"imprintado\" (Xue et al., 2002). Porém a análise de um único gene pode não representar o estado epigenético de um cromossomo inteiro. Assim o padrão de ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos se mostra uma questão importantíssima para ser esclarecida. No presente trabalho o cromossomo X bovino foi analisado em busca de SNPs (polimorfismos de base única) localizados em regiões codificadoras em genes expressos no tecido extraembrionário, permitindo assim através da análise da expressão alelo-específica determinar o padrão de expressão do cromossomo X. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho mostram um padrão de expressão bialélica, indicando que em populações diferentes de células, diferentes cromossomos X estavam ativos. Portanto a ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos ocorre de modo aleatório, padrão semelhantes àquele encontrado em humanos, e diferente daquele encontrado em ratos e camundongos. Este trabalho mostra a importância de uma análise global da expressão gênica no cromossomo X, permitindo assim traçar um perfil de atividade mais próximo possível da realidade. / In X chromosome inactivation (XCI), one of the two X chromosomes present in female mammals is transcriptionally silenced, resulting in a dosage compensation mechanism. The XCI can occur randomly, so that each cell chooses randomly which one will be the inactivated X chromosome: paternal (pX) or maternal (mX); or dependent on parental origin of X chromosome, ie, imprinted. While in female marsupials the inactivation occurs in an imprinted fashion, with the Xp inactivated in all tissues, both somatic and extra-embryonic, in the mammalian eutherians XCI in the somatic tissues occurs randomly. However some eutherians still retain the imprinted XCI mechanism exclusively in extra-embryonic tissues, such as rats and mice. In humans, the controversy of the XCI in placenta was re-evaluated by our group. Using a broader analysis, a random pattern was identified, in contrast to the previously published works. It demonstrated the importance of conducting a comprehensive analysis to determine the profile of X chromosome (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010). In cattle the pattern of XCI in bovine placenta is unclear. It was verified by analyzing the expression of a single gene, and the authors concluded that the pattern was imprinted (Xue et al., 2002). Because the analysis of a single gene may not represent the epigenetic state of an entire chromosome, the pattern of XCI in cattle extra-embryonic tissues is an important issue to be clarified. In the present study the cattle X chromosome was analyzed searching for SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) located in coding regions of genes expressed in extra-embryonic tissue. So that, by analyzing the allele-specific expression it is possible to determine the X chromosome expression patter. The preset results show a bi-allelic expression pattern. This indicates that in different cells populations, different X chromosomes are active. Thus, the XCI in extra-embryonic tissues of bovines occurs randomly, similar to the human pattern but different to that verified in rats and mice. This work shows the importance of a global analysis of the gene expression in X chromosome, through which it can trace the closest activity profile as possible to reality.

O imprinting genômico, processo regulado epigeneticamente segundo o qual os genes se expressam de acordo com sua origem parental, está envolvido no crescimento e desenvolvimento placentário. Na região 11p15.5 encontram-se vários genes regulados por duas regiões controladoras de imprinting (ICR1 e ICR2), onde se encontram as regiões diferencialmente metiladas H19DMR e KvDMR1. Acredita-se que o padrão de imprinting seja dinamicamente regulado durante o desenvolvimento da placenta. Em humanos, há poucas informações sobre imprinting genômico e desenvolvimento placentário, principalmente para estágios precoces do desenvolvimento devido às dificuldades técnicas de obtenção dessas placentas. A descrição de mosaicismo do padrão de metilação restrito a placenta ou entre a placenta e o feto evidencia um perfil epigenético único deste órgão. A 5-hidroximetilação, a qual não tem um papel de silenciamento gênico, pode ser confundida com a metilação do DNA nas análises moleculares. O objetivo principal do presente estudo foi o de verificar a influência da idade gestacional (IG) no perfil de metilação do DNA das ICRs 1 e 2 em vilosidade coriônica, bem como a existência de mosaicismo do perfil de metilação intra-placentário. Neste trabalho também foi investigada a presença de hidroximetilação na KvDMR1. Foram coletadas amostras de tecido placentário, sendo 25 de vilosidades coriônicas (VC) (15 de 3° trimestre gestacional e 10 do 1° trimestre) e nove de cordão umbilical (UC) de 1° trimestre (pareadas com a VC). Quatro placentas de 3° trimestre foram analisadas em separado para o estudo de mosaicismo. O perfil de metilação do DNA das regiões foi verificado por PCR Específica para a Metilação (MS-PCR), Análise Combinada de Bissulfito e Restrição Enzimática (COBRA) e Método de Digestão Enzimática Sensível à Metilação Associada à PCR em Tempo Real (DESM-RT), além do ensaio para hidroximetilação na KvDMR1. Com os ensaios qualitativos (MS-PCR e COBRA) foi observado um perfil de metilação monoalélico, sendo que na H19DMR foi identificada a presença de CpGs diferentemente metilados. Para a H19DMR foram observadas médias de 0,43 de metilação em VC e 0,31 em UC de 1° trimestre, e de 0,41 em VC de 3° trimestre. Para a KvDMR1, foram encontradas médias de 0,47 em VC e 0,57 em UC de 1° trimestre, e de 0,41 em VC de 3° trimestre. A presença de hidroximetilação na KvDMR1 foi excluída. Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre as médias das diferentes IGs ou entre tecidos pelos testes t e F para ambas as regiões. Não foi observada correlação positiva no perfil de metilação para H19DMR e KvDMR1 entre os tecidos. Em relação ao mosaicismo, não houve diferenças significativas no perfil de metilação entre os diferentes cotilédones amostrados numa mesma placenta. Os resultados demonstram uma discordância entre tecido embrionário (UC) e extraembrionário (VC). Apesar de não serem observadas alterações significantes nos perfis de metilação da H19DMR e KvDMR1 em diferentes IGs, as informações apresentadas são importantes para as pesquisas sobre a dinâmica do fenômeno de imprinting genômico ao longo da gestação, para os estudos de mosaicismo intraplacentário bem como o perfil epigenético da placenta em relação a outros tecidos. / Genomic imprinting, an epigenetically regulated process by which genes are expressed accordingly to their parental origin, is involved in placental growth and development. In 11p15.5 region, there are many genes regulated by two Imprinting Control Regions (ICR1 and ICR2), in which are found two Differentially Methylated Regions, H19DMR and KvDMR1, respectively. Imprinting patterns seem to be adjusted during placenta development. In humans, there is little information on genomic imprinting and placental development, especially for early stages of development due to technical difficulties in obtaining these placentas. The description of mosaicism in methylation pattern restricted to placenta or between placenta and fetus shows a unique epigenetic profile of this organ. The 5-hidroxymethylation, which has no role in gene silencing, can be confused with DNA methylation in molecular analysis. The main aim of our study was to verify the influence of gestational age (GA) in DNA methylation profile of ICRs 1 and 2 in chorionic villi, as well as the existence of intra-placental methylation profile mosaicism. The presence of hydroximethylation in the KvDMR1 was also investigated. Samples were collected from placentas, 25 from chorionic villi (CV) (15 of the 3rd gestational trimester and 10 of the 1st trimester) and nine from umbilical cord (UC) in 1st trimester (paired with the CV samples). Four 3rd trimester placentas were separately analyzed for mosaicism. DNA methylation profile was verified by Methylation Specific PCR (MS-PCR), and Combined Bisulfite Restriction Analysis (COBRA) and Methylation-Sensitive Enzyme Digestion Method associated with Real-Time PCR (DESM-RT), in addition to hydroximethylation test in the KvDMR1 region. With qualitative assays (MS-PCR and COBRA), it was observed a monoallelic methylation pattern, and, only for the H19DMR, differently methylated CpGs were observed. For the H19DMR, we observed methylation means of 0.43 in CV and 0.31 in UC of 1st trimester, and 0.41 in CV of 3rd trimester. For KvDMR1, we observed means of 0.47 in CV and 0.57 in UC of 1st trimester, and 0.41 in CV of 3rd trimester. No hydroximethylation in the KvDMR1 was observed. There were no significant differences between the means of different GAs or between tissues by F and t tests for both regions. No positive correlation was found on methylation profile for H19DMR and KvDMR1 between tissues. In relation to mosaicism, there were no significant differences in methylation profile between different cotyledons sampled in the same placenta. The results showed a discrepancy between embryonic (UC) and extra-embryonic (CV) tissues. Although it was not observed significant changes in methylation profiles of H19DMR and KvDMR1 in different GAs, the presented results are important to research on dynamics of genomic imprinting phenomenon during pregnancy, studies of intra-placental mosaicism and placenta epigenetic profile in relation to other tissues.

O mecanismo de imunorregulação gerado pelo catabolismo do triptofano pela IDO protege o feto contra a resposta imunológica materna. Neste estudo, esse mecanismo foi em avaliado em gestantes imunossuprimidas e portadoras de transplante renal. Examinou-se a expressão da IDO e sua atividade nos compartimentos placentários de gestantes saudáveis e portadoras de transplante. Células produtoras de IDO e IFN-<font face=\"Symbol\">g foram imunolocalizadas na região vilosa e região decidual em ambos os grupos analisados, com mudanças no tipo celular envolvido nestas expressões nas gestantes transplantadas. Os níveis de IDO e sua atividade, assim como seus fatores de regulação NF-kB, IFN-<font face=\"Symbol\">g e IL-10 estavam diminuídos na região vilosa. No compartimento decidual a atividade enzimática da IDO estava aumentada nas gestantes transplantadas, mas não dos seus reguladores. Sendo assim, eixo de imunorregulação gerado por IDO-IFN-<font face=\"Symbol\">g na interface placentária de gestantes portadoras de transplante renal responde diferencialmente a insultos ocasionados pela utilização de imunossupressores durante a gestação. / The mechanism of immunoregulation generated by the catabolism of tryptophan by IDO protects the fetus against maternal immune response. In this study, this mechanism was evaluated in renal transplanted pregnant women and immunosuppressed. We examined the expression and activity of IDO in placental compartments of healthy pregnant women and patients with transplants. IDO and IFN-<font face=\"Symbol\">g producing cells were imunolocalizated in villous and decidual region in both groups analyzed, with changes in cell type involved in these expressions in pregnant patients transplanted. The levels and activity of IDO, as well as their regulatory factors NF-kB, IFN-<font face=\"Symbol\">g and IL-10 were decreased in the villous region. In the decidual compartment IDO activity was increased in pregnant women transplanted, but not their regulators. Thus, the axis of immunoregulation generated by IDO and IFN-<font face=\"Symbol\">g in placental interface of pregnant women with renal transplantation responds differently to insults caused by the use of immunosuppressive drugs during pregnancy.