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No / This volume contributes to the growing literature on women, conflict and peacebuilding by focusing on the moments after a peace accord, or some other official ending of a conflict, often denoted as `post-conflict¿ or `post-war¿. Such moments often herald great hope for holding to account those who committed grave wrongs during the conflict, and for a better life in the future. For many women, both of these hopes are often very quickly shattered in starkly different ways to the hopes of men. Such periods are often characterized by violence and insecurities, and the official ending of a war often fails to bring freedom from sexual violence for many women. Within such a context, efforts on the part of women, and those made on their behalf, to hold to account those who commit crimes against them, and to access their rights are difficult to make, are often dangerous, and are also often deployed with little effect. Gendered Peace explores international contexts, and a variety of local ones, in which such struggles take place, and evaluates their progress. The volume highlights the surprising success in the development of international legal advances for women, but contrasts this with the actual experience of women in cases from Sierra Leone, Rwanda, South Africa, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, East Timor, Peru, Central America and the Balkans.'

This book is concerned with what happens to women when wars officially end. Along with several other volumes it recognises that women face particular difficulties at such ¿aftermath¿ moments which often have very strong continuities with what happened during wars, and with the nature of gender relations in society prior to armed conflict. At the international level remarkable progress has been made; in establishing women¿s legal rights; in the identification of sexual violence as a potential war crime, and even progress in some women¿s abilities to access such legal frameworks. Nonetheless, when faced with a post-war backlash from men and the state, women in highly varied cultural contexts tend to face distinct difficulties as they seek justice for crimes committed against them during and after wars; when they attempt to participate in ¿truth and reconciliation¿ endeavours, and when they attempt to re-build their lives. This book explores how far we have come both through international frameworks and in particular countries, and examines the ways in which the endings of war still often bring highly gendered challenges for women which are themselves often violent.

The purpose of this study was to determine the predictors of violent sexual ideology among a sample of clients of street prostitutes. Despite the abundance of feminist theory and research on prostitution and sexual violence, very little research examines clients of prostitutes, who have many opportunities to perpetrate sexual violence against women who engage in prostitution (Davis 1993). Because street prostitutes are structurally vulnerable to male violence due to the low respectability of their occupation, clients are especially important to study. Because violence against women and sex work has both been studied in relationship to masculinities, this study examined the relationship between marginalized masculinities and violent sexual ideology among 423 clients of street prostitutes. The sample studied was derived from the National Institute of Justice Clients of Street Prostitutes 1996-1999. Using OLS regressions, I determined the significant predictors of violent sexual ideology among these clients. I found that rape myth acceptance, frequency of pornography use, frequency of sex, age, frequency of thinking about sex, lower levels of sexual conservatism and lower levels of perceived attractiveness were significantly related to violent sexual ideology. / Master of Science

In times of war, women are subjected to sexual abuse that is largely ignored by military organizations, media outlets, and international courts. Existing literature has illustrated how wartime rape was accepted or dismissed in the past, and how today, while this practice continues, international courts are beginning to identify the harm being done to women, making explicit how rape is used as a tool of genocide. In this thesis I argue that wartime rape serves as a means of genocide, a way to eliminate a group of individuals and their culture. A recent example of how rape worked as genocide is seen in the Rwandan genocide in 1994. Rape was used as a systematic policy to destroy a group of people, the Tutsi, through torture and the spreading of AIDS. The purpose of this research is to examine genocidal rape from the perspectives of women who were raped in Rwanda during the genocide. The focus is on gaining insight to wartime rape as a form of genocide and the aftermath of rape on the women and the culture within which it occurred. Qualitative, feminist analysis was used to answer the following research questions: How do women raped in the Rwandan genocide describe and explain their experiences with rape and its aftermath? How did the intersection of gender and ethnicity contribute to violence against women during the genocide? What are the implications of rape for the women who experienced it and for their families, communities, and their cultural group? / Master of Science

Objetivou-se conhecer a possível dinâmica da violência sexual contra meninos. A tese é composta por três artigos: um artigo no qual um modelo integrativo conceitual da dinâmica da violência sexual contra crianças e adolescentes é proposto; um artigo empírico de apresentação e avaliação das parcerias estabelecidas para a coleta de dados; e um artigo empírico com os resultados do estudo sobre a dinâmica da violência sexual contra meninos. Participaram do principal estudo dessa tese quatro meninos vítimas de violência sexual e quatro psicólogos da rede de atendimento às vítimas de violência sexual. A análise das entrevistas evidenciou a menor visibilidade das situações de violência sexual contra meninos, a influência de padrões sociais de masculinidade e o despreparo da rede de atendimento para intervenção nesses casos. A maior compreensão da violência sexual contra meninos é necessária para a implantação de estratégias de intervenção adaptadas às necessidades de meninos vítimas. / The aim of this doctoral dissertation was to investigate the possible dynamics of sexual violence against boys. The dissertation is composed of three articles: an article proposing a conceptual integrative model of the dynamics of sexual violence against children; an empirical article regarding the evaluation of partnerships with assistance networks developed for data collection; and an empirical article with the results of the study on the dynamics of sexual violence against boys. Participants were four boys victims of sexual violence and four psychologists of assistance networks. The results showed a lower visibility of sexual violence against boys, the influence of social standards of masculinity, and the lack of professional specialization for delivering intervention for the victims. A greater comprehension of sexual violence against boys is necessary for the implementation of more effective intervention strategies adapted to the needs of boy victims.

Objetivou-se conhecer a possível dinâmica da violência sexual contra meninos. A tese é composta por três artigos: um artigo no qual um modelo integrativo conceitual da dinâmica da violência sexual contra crianças e adolescentes é proposto; um artigo empírico de apresentação e avaliação das parcerias estabelecidas para a coleta de dados; e um artigo empírico com os resultados do estudo sobre a dinâmica da violência sexual contra meninos. Participaram do principal estudo dessa tese quatro meninos vítimas de violência sexual e quatro psicólogos da rede de atendimento às vítimas de violência sexual. A análise das entrevistas evidenciou a menor visibilidade das situações de violência sexual contra meninos, a influência de padrões sociais de masculinidade e o despreparo da rede de atendimento para intervenção nesses casos. A maior compreensão da violência sexual contra meninos é necessária para a implantação de estratégias de intervenção adaptadas às necessidades de meninos vítimas. / The aim of this doctoral dissertation was to investigate the possible dynamics of sexual violence against boys. The dissertation is composed of three articles: an article proposing a conceptual integrative model of the dynamics of sexual violence against children; an empirical article regarding the evaluation of partnerships with assistance networks developed for data collection; and an empirical article with the results of the study on the dynamics of sexual violence against boys. Participants were four boys victims of sexual violence and four psychologists of assistance networks. The results showed a lower visibility of sexual violence against boys, the influence of social standards of masculinity, and the lack of professional specialization for delivering intervention for the victims. A greater comprehension of sexual violence against boys is necessary for the implementation of more effective intervention strategies adapted to the needs of boy victims.

Objetivou-se conhecer a possível dinâmica da violência sexual contra meninos. A tese é composta por três artigos: um artigo no qual um modelo integrativo conceitual da dinâmica da violência sexual contra crianças e adolescentes é proposto; um artigo empírico de apresentação e avaliação das parcerias estabelecidas para a coleta de dados; e um artigo empírico com os resultados do estudo sobre a dinâmica da violência sexual contra meninos. Participaram do principal estudo dessa tese quatro meninos vítimas de violência sexual e quatro psicólogos da rede de atendimento às vítimas de violência sexual. A análise das entrevistas evidenciou a menor visibilidade das situações de violência sexual contra meninos, a influência de padrões sociais de masculinidade e o despreparo da rede de atendimento para intervenção nesses casos. A maior compreensão da violência sexual contra meninos é necessária para a implantação de estratégias de intervenção adaptadas às necessidades de meninos vítimas. / The aim of this doctoral dissertation was to investigate the possible dynamics of sexual violence against boys. The dissertation is composed of three articles: an article proposing a conceptual integrative model of the dynamics of sexual violence against children; an empirical article regarding the evaluation of partnerships with assistance networks developed for data collection; and an empirical article with the results of the study on the dynamics of sexual violence against boys. Participants were four boys victims of sexual violence and four psychologists of assistance networks. The results showed a lower visibility of sexual violence against boys, the influence of social standards of masculinity, and the lack of professional specialization for delivering intervention for the victims. A greater comprehension of sexual violence against boys is necessary for the implementation of more effective intervention strategies adapted to the needs of boy victims.

Sexual violence is a well-known phenomenon in armed conflicts. The international attention from scholars and policymakers has substantially expanded during the last decades, but until today a comprehensive understanding of the circumstances that generate this violence is absent. This causes difficulties in the policy rhetoric of the issue, as well as in the development of effective measures to prevent and combat conflict-related sexual violence in current conflicts. This study aims to explore and identify circumstances related to the use of sexual violence by armed groups, and by state forces in particular. The overall purpose is to contribute to an understanding of why state forces commit sexual violence in some armed conflicts and not in others. An analytical framework is created based on existing theoretical concepts and explanations to the varying frequency of sexual violence. Based on this, five hypotheses of possible correlated conditions are created. These conditional factors are: 1) Rule of Law, 2) Other Violence, 3) Ethnic Conflict, 4) Gender Equality, and 5) International Support. The hypotheses are translated into macro-level variables that are systematically applied and compared between ten cases of armed conflicts, five of which have high levels of sexual violence committed by state forces, respectively five with no reports of sexual violence committed by state forces. This is done by a cross-national comparison using descriptive statistics. Four hypotheses are to a varying degree strengthened by this study and the result suggests that sexual violence committed by state forces is more likely to occur; in conflicts with low levels of rule of law; in ethnic conflicts; in conflicts with high levels of other violence, and; in absence of international support. The anticipation is that the results of this study will provide a platform for further conclusive research of casual factors to conflict-related sexual violence.

A violência sexual caracteriza-se como complexo problema de saúde pública, que pode trazer conseqüências físicas e psicológicas para a saúde da pessoa exposta e vitimada. Em situações de risco, a contaminação pelas Doenças Sexualmente Transmissíveis e a gravidez indesejada podem ser prevenidas por meio da terapêutica quimioprofilática e transtornos emocionais podem ser amenizados mediante orientação psicológica precoce. O seguimento ambulatorial em especialidades, indicado pelo período de seis meses, possibilita verificar se houve eficácia na prevenção efetuada e orientar quanto à promoção à saúde. Com o intuito de conhecer algumas características das vítimas e de seus seguimentos ambulatoriais, avaliaram-se 305 prontuários de pessoas atendidas após violência sexual, em Centro de Referência, entre julho de 2003 a junho de 2004. Encontraram-se pessoas com idades até 77 anos e a mediana situou-se em 13 anos. Houve predomínio de vítimas do sexo feminino (89,2%), e as maiores freqüências foram observadas entre solteiras (49,8%), estudantes (47,2%) e com cor de pele branca (57%). Entre os agressores identificáveis, informados em 75,1% dos atendimentos, tiveram maior representatividade o padrasto (n=35) e o pai (n=31). Indicou-se profilaxia para gravidez em 23,9% dos atendimentos, para Doenças Sexualmente Transmissíveis em 29,5% e, para prevenção do vírus HIV, em 27,9%. Entre os seguimentos ambulatoriais, indicados nas especialidades de infectologia (70,8%) e ginecologia (58,8%), verificaram-se 60,4% de retorno em algum tipo de consulta em infectologia e 40,7%, em ginecologia. Seguimentos com psicólogo foram indicados para 98% das vítimas e destas, 23% passaram em algum tipo de retorno. Frente ao exposto, este estudo aponta para a necessidade de ações e políticas que possibilitem e favoreçam os seguimentos em consulta ambulatorial para vítimas de violência sexual, expostas ao risco de conseqüências à saúde física e psicológica. / Sexual violence is considered to be a complex public health problem which can bring either physical or psychological consequences to the health of the exposed and victimized person. In risky situations, the contamination by Sexually Transmitted Diseases and the non desired pregnancy may be prevented through chemoprophylactic therapeutic and emotional disorders may be reduced with early psychological orientation. The outpatient follow up in specialty, indicated for a six month period, makes it possible to check if the prevention was really effective and to orient towards health promotion. Aiming to learn about the victim features and their outpatient follow up, 305 medical charts have been evaluated. All these people had been attended in Reference Center from July 2003 to June 2004, after suffering sexual violence. People’s age went up to 77 years old and the median was 13 years old. Most victims were female (89,2%) and the highest frequency seemed to be among single (49,8%), students (47,2%) and Caucasian (57%). Among the identifiable aggressors, who had been informed in 75,1% of the cases, the stepfather (n=35) and the father (n=31) were the most representative. Prophylaxis for pregnancy (23,9%), for Sexually Transmitted Diseases (29,5%) and for preventing HIV virus (27,9%) were indicated. Among the outpatient follow up, which had been indicated in infectology (70,8%) and gynecology (58,8%), it has been observed that the outpatients who returned for at least some of the medical appointment were 60,4% in infectology and 40,7% in gynecology. Follow up with psychologists was indicated for 98% of the victims and among these, 23% have returned. Therefore , after all these data, this study aims to show the need of actions and policies which may enable and favor outpatient follow up for sexual violence victims who are exposed to risks, both for their physical and psychological health.