This thesis is devoted to the analysis and optimization of pacing strategies in cross-country skiing and time-trial road cycling. In locomotive sports, it is well known that variable pacing strategies using changes in the distribution of power output are beneficial when external forces vary along the way. However, there is a lack of research that more in detail investigates the magnitude of power output alteration necessary to optimize performance.A numerical program has been developed in the MATLAB software to simulate cross-country skiing and time-trial road cycling, as well as pacing strategy optimization in these two locomotive sports. The simulations in this thesis are performed by solving equations of motion, where all the main forces acting on the athlete are considered. The motion equations also depend on the course profile, which is expressed as a connected chain of cubical splines.The simulation process is linked to an optimization routine called the Method of Moving Asymptotes (MMA), which strives to minimize the finishing time while altering the power output along the course. To mimic the human energetic system, the optimization is restricted by behavioural and side constraints.Simple constraints like maximum average power output are used for cross-country skiing in Papers I and II. In Paper III a more sophisticated and realistic constraint is used for the power output in time-trial road cycling. It is named the concept of critical power for intermittent exercise and combines the aerobic and anaerobic contributions to power output.In conclusion, this thesis has demonstrated the feasibility of using numerical simulation and optimization in order to optimize pacing strategies in two locomotive sports. The results are clearly showing that these optimized pacing strategies are more beneficial to performance than an even distribution of power output. / Denna avhandling är dedikerad att analysera och optimera farthållningsstrategier i längdskidåkning och tempocykling på landsväg. I idrotter som bygger på kontinuerlig framåtdrivning är det väl känt att farthållningsstrategier med variabel effekt är fördelaktiga om de yttre krafterna varierar längs banan. Ändå saknas forskning som mer i detalj utreder hur mycket effekten ska variera för att optimera prestationen.Ett numeriskt program har utvecklats i programvaran MATLAB för att simulera längdskidåkning och tempocykling samt optimera farthållningsstrategin i dessa idrotter. Simuleringarna använder sig av rörelseekvationer som består av de huvudsakliga krafter som verkar på idrottsutövaren under färd. Rörelseekvationerna påverkas också av banprofilen, som är uppbyggd av en sammankopplad kedja av tredjegradspolynom.Simuleringsprogrammet är kopplat till en optimeringsalgoritm med namnet Method of Moving Asyptotes (MMA), som strävar efter att minimera tiden mellan start och mål genom att ändra effekten längs med banan. Optimeringen begränsas av bivillkor i ett försök att efterlikna den mänskliga kroppens fysiologiska begränsningar.Enkla begränsningar såsom maximal medeleffekt används för längdskidåkningen i artikel I och II. I artikel III används mer sofistikerade och realistiska bivillkor för att begränsa uteffekten vid landsvägscykling. Här används modellen för kritisk effekt vid intervallträning, som kombinerar aerobt och anaerobt arbete.Sammanfattningsvis har denna avhandling visat på möjligheterna med att använda numerisk simulering och optimering för att optimera farthållningsstrategin i två idrotter. Resultaten visar tydligt att dessa optimerade farthållningsstrategier med varierande effekt är mer fördelaktiga för prestationen jämfört med en farthållningsstrategi med helt jämn effektfördelning.

This paper examines the ongoing conflict between Squaw Valley Ski Holdings and the local Tahoe community and analyzes this conflict within the greater historical context of ski resort consolidation and development across the Western United States.

This research provides a sociological analysis of skiing as a form of outdoor recreation and nature tourism in British Columbia, Canada. A qualitative multi-method approach is used, combining discourse analysis, interviews with skiers, and unobtrusive field observation at Whistler Blackcomb and Whitewater ski resorts. Through a focus on discourse, embodied interactions among humans and non-humans, and flows of power, this research describes an environmental ambiguity at the centre of skiing. There is a tension between interpretations of skiing as an environmentally-sustainable practice and notions of skiing as an environmental and social problem. Skiing is based on the symbolic consumption of nature and is understood by many participants as a way of entering into a meaningful relationship with the non-human environment. However, interpretations of skiing as a non-consumptive use of non-human nature are too simple. Social movement groups disrupt pro-environmental discourses of skiing by challenging the sport’s ecological and social legitimacy. Many skiers also articulate a self-reflexive environmental critique of their sport. In these instances, skiing is brought into the realm of politics. Recreational forms of interaction with the non-human environment tend to be at the periphery of environmental sociology. At the same time, sport sociologists tend to focus on the social dimensions of outdoor recreation, while bracketing out non-human nature. This research brings these two fields of inquiry into dialogue with each other, thereby addressing this double lacuna.

Ruapehu is an active volcano located on the North Island of New Zealand, with the most recent major eruptions occurring in 1945, 1969, 1975, and 1995/96. Ruapehu is also home to the three major North Island ski areas, Whakapapa, Turoa, and Tukino. Because of the high frequency of eruptions, there is a significant volcanic hazard at the ski areas particularly from lahars which can form even after minor eruptions. Most recently, lahars have affected Whakapapa ski area in 1969, 1975, and 1995/96. The most significant risk at Turoa is from ballistic bombs due to the proximity of the top two T-Bars to the crater. Ash fall has also caused disruption at the ski areas, covering the snow and causing damage to structures. There is yet to be a death at the ski areas from a volcanic event; however the risk at the ski areas is too high to be completely ignored. The ski areas at Whakapapa and Turoa are currently operated by Ruapehu Alpine Lifts (RAL), who have been significantly improving their commitment to providing volcanic hazard training for their staff and preparing for handling a volcanic eruption. RAL is joined by the Institute of Geological Sciences (GNS) and the Department of Conservation (DoC) in trying to mitigate this risk through a range of initiatives, including an automated Eruption Detection System (EDS), linked to sirens and loudspeakers on Whakapapa ski areas, as well as by providing staff training and public education. The aim of this study was to provide RAL with recommendations to improve their staff training and warning system response. Staff induction week at both Turoa and Whakapapa ski areas was observed. Surveys were distributed and collected from staff at both ski areas, and interviews were conducted with staff at Whakapapa ski area. Data obtained from staff interviews and surveys provided the author with insight into staff's mental models regarding a volcanic event response. A simulation of the warning system was observed, as well as a blind test, to collect data on the effectiveness of training on staff response. Results indicated permanent and seasonal staff were knowledgeable of the volcanic hazards that may affect the ski areas, but had differing perspectives on the risk associated with those hazards. They were found to be confident in the initial response to a volcanic event (i.e. move to higher ground), but were unsure of what would happen after this initial response. RAL was also found to have greatly improved their volcanic hazard training in the past year, however further recommendations were suggested to increase training effectiveness. A training needs analysis was done for different departments at the ski areas by taking a new approach of anticipating demands staff may encounter during a volcanic event and complementing these demands with existing staff competencies. Additional recommendations were made to assist RAL in developing an effective plan to use when responding to volcanic events, as well as other changes that could be made to improve the likelihood of customer safety at the ski areas during an eruption.

Längdskidåkning är en av de mest krävande uthållighetsidrotterna där tävlingstiderna kan variera mellan tre minuter till närmare fyra timmar. Om en idrottsutövare ska nå toppen av sin förmåga krävs det vanligtvis att denne avsätter 20 till 30 timmar per vecka åt träning och tävling under flera års tid. Inom skidskytte behöver utövarna, utöver att vara duktiga längdskidåkare, dessutom bära ett gevär på ryggen och skjuta på måltavlor under högintensiv belastning. Syftet med studien var att kartlägga utövares upplevelser av avgörande och betydelsefulla faktorer för långa framgångsrika idrottskarriärer inom längdskidåkning och skidskytte. I studien användes en kvalitativ metod med semistrukturerade intervjuer, där totalt nio individer deltog. Deltagarna hade tävlat på nationell eller internationell nivå inom längdskidåkning eller skidskytte under minst en tio årsperiod som seniorer. Ett antal övergripande betydelsefulla och avgörande faktorer för framgångsrika idrottskarriärer inom längdskidåkning kunde identifieras. Dessa var: träning och organisation, socioekonomiska faktorer, talang och genetisk potential samt återhämtning. För att nå nationella och internationella framgångar och bedriva en elitsatsning krävs inte bara många års träning, utan även stöd från omgivning i form av familj, tillgång till rätt kompetens och ekonomiskt bidrag eller lön. / Cross country skiing is one of the most demanding endurance sports where the duration of physical effort during a competitive event usually lasts from three minutes up to four hours, or sometimes even longer. To reach national or international elite level, an athlete generally needs to invest 20 to 30 hours of training a week over many years. In biathlon, an athlete not only has to be a good skier, but also be able to carry a rifle and shoot on targets during high intense work load. The aim of this study was to identify athletes' own experiences of the crucial factors that allow for long and successful sport careers in cross country skiing. The study was qualitatively orientated, where semi-structured interviews were used to collect the athlete's perceptions. In total, nine individuals with at least 10 years of competitive cross country skiing or biathlon experience as adults at national or internationallevel participated. The interviews revealed several factors that athletes believe are crucial for achieving long and successful careers. These factors were: 1. Training and organization, 2. Socioeconomic factors, 3. Talent and genetic potential and 4. Recovery. To maintain long and successful careers in cross country skiing, athletes perceive that in addition to factors associated with the training process, support from family, their team and sponsors play important roles.

Aim This study aimed to investigate at what age young adolescence in Dalarna stops competing in cross-country skiing. Furthermore, to explore possible reasons to why they decide to stop competing. Method To answer the aim a mixed-method was applied. The data collection comprised a quantitative statistical study of when young adolescence from five different teams stopped competing. Additionally, 10 qualitative interviews were conducted with six young adolescence, three coaches and Dalarnas ski associations head of management training. Results The results show that most young adolescents in Dalarnas association stops competing when they reach the age of 12-13. Furthermore, the results suggest that there isn’t just one specific reason to why young adolescence in Dalarnas stops competing. Instead five reoccurring themes: performance, other sports, parents, interpersonal relationships and physical prerequisites were found. Conclusion The results show that the age where most young adolescents stops competing is 12-13 years. Additionally that here is no simple answer to why young adolescent in Dalarna stops competing. Instead the reasons why they decide to stop competing consists of many different factors. With background from the result a conclusion can be made that there is need of improvement, from the association as well as the teams, concerning how to make competition more attractive to youth in Dalarna. The two most common areas to talk about amongst the interview subjects were performance and interpersonal relationships. Therefore those two areas might be a good starting point in the process of keeping youth in competition context. / Syfte Syftet med studien var att undersöka vid vilken ålder barn och ungdomar inom Dalarnas Skidförbund slutar att delta i längdskidtävlingar. Vidare att undersöka möjliga bakomliggande orsaker till att barn och ungdomar slutat tävla. Metod För att besvara syftet med studien applicerades en blandad metod. Delstudie ett är av kvantitativ karaktär och innehåller data gällande vid vilken ålder som unga längdskidåkare inom Dalarnas Skidförbund slutar tävla. Delstudie 2 är av kvalitativ karaktär och består av tio intervjuer. Sex av dessa var med ungdomar som valt att sluta, tre var med aktiva ledare och den sista intervjun var med den utbildningsansvariga i Dalarnas Skidförbund. Resultat Resultatet visar på att barn- och ungdomar inom Dalarnas Skidförbund slutar tävla när de når 12- 13 års ålder. Vidare tyder resultatet på att det inte finns någon specifik enskild anledning till att barn och ungdomar inom Dalarnas Skidförbund slutar att tävla på längdskidor. Istället identifierades fem återkommande teman: Prestation/resultat, andra idrotter, föräldrar, social samhörighet och fysiska förutsättningar. Slutsatser Resultatet visar att de flesta barn och ungdomar inom Dalarnas Skidförbund slutar vid 12-13 års ålder. Vidare att det inte finns något enkelt svar på varför barn och ungdomar i Dalarnas Skidförbund slutar att tävla på längdskidor. Istället grundas deras beslut att sluta tävla på ett flertal olika faktorer. Utifrån studiens resultat går det att dra slutsatsen att det finns förbättringspotential både inom klubbarna men även hos förbundet när det gäller arbetet för att behålla tävlingsaktiva längdskidåkare i distriktet. Det som intervjudeltagarna pratade mest om var prestation/resultat och social samhörighet. Därför kan dessa två områden vara en bra startpunkt att utgå från i arbetet för att behålla tävlingsaktiva inom distriktet.

Purpose The purpose of the study was to investigate if the aggression levels differs between the sports swimming, thaiboxing and slalom skiing. There is no knowledge of aggression levels in these sports in a Swedish context. Method Quantitative method was used for data collection in the study and 66 questionnaires were distributed to men and women in swimming, thaiboxing and slalom skiing. A validated questionnaire, The Aggression Questionnaire (AQ), was translated into Swedish. The factors that were investigated in the questionnaire were verbal aggression, anger, hostility and physical aggression and the questionnaire included 29 statements. In total, 65 participants answered the questionnaire and the response rate was 98 %. Descriptive statistics were used to investigate differences in aggression levels, gender, age and sport. The age of the participants was divided into three categories, under 20, from 20-29 and over 30. Results The results showed that there were significant differences in aggression levels between the different sports. The aggression levels were highest in slalom and lowest in swimming. In addition, the results showed that there is a gender difference between women and men and men had higher aggression. In total, the men in slalom had the highest levels of aggression while the women in swimming had the lowest levels. The women in thaiboxing had the highest levels of aggression among all women. Finally, the results showed that the aggression levels were lowest among those over 30 years. Conclusions This study shows that there are differences in aggression levels among sports swimming, thaiboxing and slalom, and that there are gender differences. Men in slalom skiing had the highest levels of aggression while the women in swimming had the lowest. The conclusion is that in sports with high level of aggression it is beneficial to discuss and learn how to deal with the aggression. / Syfte och frågeställningar Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka om aggressionsnivån skiljer sig mellan de olika sporterna simning, thaiboxning och slalom. Det saknas kunskap om aggressionsnivåer i dessa sporter i en svensk kontext. Metod Kvantitativ metod användes för datainsamling i denna studie och 66 enkäter delades ut till aktiva kvinnor och män i sporterna simning, thaiboxning och slalom. En validerad enkät, The Aggression Questionnaire (AQ), användes översatt till svenska. De olika faktorer som undersöktes i enkäten var verbal aggression, ilska, fientlighet och fysisk aggression. Sextiofem deltagare besvarade enkäten och svarsfrekvensen i studien var 98%. Deskriptiv statistik användes för att undersöka skillnader i aggressionsnivåer, kön, ålder och sport. Deltagarna delades upp i tre ålderskategorier, yngre än 20, mellan 20 - 29 och över 30 år. Resultat Resultaten visade att det finns signifikanta skillnader i aggressionsnivå mellan de olika sporterna. Aggressionsnivåer var högst bland slalomåkare och lägst i sporten simning. Dessutom visade resultaten att det är skillnad mellan kvinnor och män och män hade högre aggression. De slalomåkande männen hade högst i sammanlagda poäng medan kvinnorna i simning hade lägst. Thaiboxande kvinnor hade högst bland kvinnorna i den sammanlagda poängen. Avslutningsvis visade studien att personer över 30 år hade lägre aggressionsnivå än yngre. Slutsatser Studien visar att det fanns skillnader i aggressionsnivå mellan utövare i thaiboxning, slalom och simning. Männen i slalom skattade högst i alla aspekter som mätte aggression förutom fientlighet medan kvinnorna i simning skattade lägst. Slutsatser som dras är att i de sporter där det är hög aggressionsnivå kan det vara bra att jobba med sin ilska och lära sig att hantera den.

Syfte: Studiens syfte var att undersöka skillnaden mellan två olika återhämtningsstrategier, delkroppsarbete (cykelergometer) och helkroppsarbete (rullskidor), avseende effektutveckling vid upprepade högintensiva arbeten på stakergometer. Vidare syftar studien till att undersöka om hjärtfrekvensen och blodlaktatkoncentrationen skiljer sig åt mellan återhämtningsstrategierna. Metod: Sju elitaktiva manliga skidåkare på nationell nivå rekryterades till studien där en crossovermetod tillämpades. En prolog och tre heat med tre minuter högintensivt arbete genomfördes under varje prestationstillfälle. Återhämtningsstrategierna genomfördes med 16 min arbete på en arbetsbelastning vid ≈ 55% av VO2max. De testvariabler som samlades in var laktatkoncentration, effektutveckling samt hjärtfrekvens. Resultat: En signifikant lägre laktatkoncentration påvisades efter helkroppsarbete som återhämtningsstrategi. Dock kunde ingen skillnad mellan strategierna påvisas avseende effektutveckling under heaten. Det kunde heller inte påvisas någon skillnad i hjärtfrekvens före eller under heaten. Slutsatser: Ingen utav de undersökta återhämtningsstrategierna kan rekommenderas framför den andra avseende att optimera sprintprestationsförmågan i längdskidåkning. Däremot visade det sig att helkroppsarbete medförde en lägre blodlaktatkoncentration inför nästkommande heat jämfört mot delkroppsarbete som återhämtningsstrategi. / Purpose: The purpose of the study was to investigate the difference between two recovery strategies, lower-body work (cycle) and whole-body work (roller skiing), regarding to power development in repeated maximum workout on double-poling ergometer. Moreover, the study also aims to investigating whether the heart rate and the blood-lactate concentration differ between the recovery strategies. Method: Seven elite-active male skiers at national level were recruited to the study where a crossover method was applied. A prologue and three heats with three minutes of high-intensity work were performed during each performance. Recovery strategies were carried out with 16 min work at a workload for ≈ 55% of VO2max. The collected test variables in this study were lactate concentration, effect development, and heart rate. Results: A significant difference was found in the lactate concentration after whole-body work as a recovery strategy. However, there was no difference between the strategies in power development during the heats. Furthermore, no difference in heartrates was detected before or during the heats. Conclusions: None of the investigated recovery strategies can be recommended above the other in order to optimize the sprint performance in cross-country skiing. However, whole-body work resulted in a lower blood-lactate concentration prior to next heat compared to lower-body work as recovery strategy.

Title: Specific roller skis' games and acitivities for young nordic skiers aged between 12 and 14 years Goal: Create and verify a collection of games and activities by experts on the rollers skis'for young nordic skiers aged between 12 and 14 years. Methods: A first method used in this work was available analysis of czech and international documents about games and activities. Then a collection of games and activities was made, which was customised for roller skis trainings. Furthermore, there was a verification of collection of roller skis'games and activities with the help of a board of experts composed of experienced and licensed nordic skiers'trainers and then nordic skiers'experts. An unstructured interview was made with them followed by a discussion about each game and activity. Results: In the first part there is a chapter about an equipment used collection created by us. The main part is made of a customised and verified collection of roller skis'games and activities for young nordic skiers aged between 12 and 14 years. Board of experts made a verification added their ideas and suggestions to specific games and activities in the form tips and suggestion. A new chapter dividing the collection was created as a result of a discussion with the board of experts was created at the end of a final...

This diploma deals with history and progress of skialpinism in the (historically) Czech lands. The diploma consists of 4 parts. The first one defines the term Skialpinism in its progress stages. The second part of the diploma deals with the beginning and progress of skis as an equipment, progress of ski bindings, and other necessary equipment for skialpinism, for example climbing skins. In the third part the history of skialpinism is divided into individual stages, starting with the period 1900 {--} 1918, and then the period between the Wars, followed by the period from 1945 to 1975, and the last one is the period from 1975 to present. The fourth part covers comparison of the skialpinism evolution in the Czech lands, progress of the Czech skialpinism outside the Czech country, and the progress of skialpinism in the world.