No description available.

Social media use is ubiquitous, especially among young adults. Negative consequences of social media use has been associated with engaging in upward social comparisons with others on social media. The current paper presents a series of two studies that seek to understand the nuances of social comparisons as they occur while browsing social media. In Study 1 (N = 161) we tested whether upward social comparisons would be less harmful when the comparer focuses on the similarities, rather than differences, with the comparison target. We observed a marginal interaction indicating that when thinking about similarities with the target, upward comparisons were slightly less detrimental to self-evaluations, than when thinking about differences. Study 2 (N = 320) tested other potential moderators of upward social comparisons suggested by traditional theories of social comparison to see if they would apply to a social media context. We predicted when a participant rates the comparison target to be more similar (vs. different) and distant (vs. close) and the domain to be more attainable (vs. less attainable), upward social comparisons will be less harmful to self-evaluations. Neither similarity nor closeness were significant moderators. Multilevel models showed a significant interaction between upward comparisons and attainability on self-evaluations (p < .001). Simple slopes indicated viewing the domain as attainable amplified the harmful effects of upward social comparisons on self-evaluations compared to viewing the domain as less attainable. These results are contrary to our predictions and suggest that traditional theories of social comparisons may not apply to a social media context. We also investigated how the target of the social comparison would impact the experience of the social comparison and its impact on self-evaluations. Results from Study 2 showed that participants who made comparisons with distant others (celebrities/strangers) were more likely to have higher upward social comparison scores, lower levels of similarity and closeness and view the domain as less attainable. These results display when we could expect harmful consequences following making a social comparison with a celebrity or stranger while viewing Instagram, posts. Study limitations and advantages are discussed along with future research to be explored.

This study examines how young women are affected by the body ideals on Instagram. Eight women from a university in the south of Sweden are interviewed. The results are discussed in this qualitative study by using the social comparison theory, sociocultural theory, the gender system and postfeminism. Through the interviews about how the body ideals on Instagram work and are created, the study shows a nuanced picture of how young women are affected by the body ideals that are spread. The study shows that Instagram has a significant impact on the respondents, which leads to an increased pressure and stress in connection with striving for the body ideals. Their perceptions of the idealized body ideal are changing, and striving to achieve this ideal creates strains on their standards. By applying chosen theories of social comparison, gender systems, sociocultural factors and postfeminism, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of how young women navigate and shape their self-images in a digital context. The findings underscore the importance of recognizing and addressing the challenges young women face in terms of body ideals and self-image formation on social media platforms such as Instagram.

Majority of millennials are daily users of Instagram and in conjunction with previous studies on Instagram displaying negative effects on psychological well-being, how individuals perceive their identity in relation to their Instagram use is interesting as it could be a part of how their psychological wellbeing is affected through use. Most previous research on Instagram and psychological well-being are general and based on quantitative methods. Descriptive findings on how individuals relate to their Instagram in terms of image or identity is not yet explored. The research question of this paper is therefore to investigate if there exists a perceived ideal image on Instagram and if individuals separate their Instagram image from their perceived real identities. Semi-structured interviews with 11 participants categorized through thematic analysis indicate a perceived ideal image on Instagram exists, and majority of participants cannot separate their Instagram image from their perceived real identity. It is assumed through findings that the level of awareness when applying one’s image or identity during Instagram use could indicate how risky it is for individuals to be affected negatively on their psychological well-being during usage. Increasing awareness of how one identify him- or herself based on his or her image or perceived real self could potentially decrease the risk of negative social comparison and self-discrepancy in interaction with one’s Instagram use. Findings showed there exists a perceived ideal image on Instagram while there is no coherent perception among participants in how they separate their perceived image from their perceived real identity. Future research could investigate whether this ’identity incongruence’ while using Instagram is part of a new way of constructing one’ identity in a world where virtual and real no longer has clear borders. / Majoriteten av Millennials är dagliga användare av Instagram och i kombination med tidigare studier om Instagram som tyder på negativa effekter på det psykosociala välmåendet - är hur individer upplever deras identitet i relation till deras Instagram-användande är intressant att undersöka, då det kan vara del av hur deras psykosociala välmående påverkas genom användning. Större delen av tidigare studier om Instagram och psykosocialt välmående är generell i naturen och baserat på kvantitativa metoder. Detaljerade resultat av hur individer relaterar till deras Instagram i form av image eller identitet är ännu inte undersökt. Frågeställningen är därför att undersöka om en upplevd idealisk image existerar på Instagram och om individer separerar deras Instagram image från deras upplevda riktiga identitet. Semi-strukturerade intervjuer med elva medverkande, kategoriserade genom tematisk analys, indikerar på att en upplevd idealisk image på Instagram existerar samt att majoriteten av dem medverkande inte kan skilja deras Instagram image från deras upplevda riktiga identitet. Det är antaget genom resultatet att nivån av medvetenhet man har i appliceringen av ens image eller identitet under användningen av Instagram kan indikera hur riskfyllt det är för individer att bli negativt påverkade psykosocialt under deras användning. Genom ökat medvetande av hur man identifierar sig själv baserat på sin image eller upplevda riktiga jag skulle risken för negativ social jämförelse och själv-diskrepans potentiellt minska i interaktion med ens Instagram-användande. Resultaten visar att en upplevd idealisk image på Instagram existerar samtidigt som en sammanhängande uppfattning av hur de medverkande separerar deras upplevda image från deras upplevda riktiga identitet inte existerar. Framtida studier kan undersöka närmare om denna ’identitets-inkongruens’ som uppstår under Instagram-användande är ett nytt sätt att skapa sin identitet på i en värld där det virtuella och det riktiga inte längre har tydliga gränser.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

Syfte Dagens teknik har medfört en explosion av nätbaserade sociala medier där bilder av träning och kroppar är ett tydligt fenomen. Syftet med detta arbete har varit att undersöka hur kroppsideal skapas och framställs på internet och framförallt sociala medier. Till hjälp användes frågeställningarna: Hur gestaltar manliga fitness-profiler sig själv och sina kroppar på den nätbaserade tjänsten Instagram? Finns det kopplingar mellan dessa profilers kroppsgestaltningar och specifika kroppsideologier? (Rosenmann &amp; Kaplan, 2014) Metod Arbetet utfördes med netnografisk metod i grunden, en metod specifikt fokuserad på kvalitativ forskning av internet. Tre manliga fitnessprofiler samt fem av varje profils bilder valdes utifrån popularitet på Instagram för att granskas och analyseras i relation till kroppsideal. Resultat Bilderna hade gemensamma egenskaper då dessa, ofta i gymmiljö, visade avklädda, extremt muskulösa kroppar med fokus på framsidan av överkroppen. Skilda egenskaper förekom, dock inte i någon signifikant bemärkelse. Kroppsideologin metrosexuella-och konsumentmaskuliniteten (Rosenmann &amp; Kaplan, 2014) präglade profilerna. Slutsatser Dessa fitnessprofilers framställning av sina kroppar stämde väl överens med dagens rådande muskulära kroppsideal som innefattar en slimmad, muskulös, väldefinierad kropp. Tydliga kopplingar kunde också göras till Rosenmann’s och Kaplan’s (2014) kroppsideologi; metrosexuella-och konsumentmaskuliniteten. / Objective The advanced technology of today’s society has brought on a heavy uprising of social media where images of training and bodies are a common phenomenon. The aim of this study was to examine how body ideals are created on the internet, with focus on social media. Two questions were used to help with this objective: How do male fitness profiles portrait themselves and their bodies on the net based service Instagram? Do connections exist between these profiles portraits of the body and specific body ideologies? (Rosenmann &amp; Kaplan, 2014). Method The study was carried out with a nethnographic method, a method specifically focused on qualitative research regarding the internet. Three male fitness profiles and five of their images each were selected based on popularity on Instagram to be examined and analyzed in relation to body ideal. Results The images had similar attributes which included that they, often in a gym environment, showed undressed, extremely muscular bodies with emphasized focus on the upper body. Differences were present in the images but not to any significant extent. The profiles were defined by the body ideology of metrosexuality and consumer masculinity (Rosenmann &amp; Kaplan, 2014). Conclusion The representation of the images of these fitness profiles translate well into the current muscular body ideal that contains a lean, muscular, well defined body. Clear connections could be made to Rosenmann’s och Kaplan’s (2014) body ideology of metrosexuality and consumer masculinity.

The main purpose of this thesis was to investigate the fit between four achievement goals, personal goal attributes and self-regulation strategies, and the generalisation of goal-strategy patterns to (1) different life domains (academic and physical activity settings), (2) two cultures (individualistic/the UK and collectivistic/Romania) and (3) over time, in two contexts (academic and sport university settings) in the UK. Additionally, differences between high level English and Romanian athletes in self-construals (individualism versus collectivism), achievement goals and self-regulation processes was investigated in one study. Method. The participants in the four studies of this thesis were: English university students (N = 591; study 1), English university athletes and exercise participants (N = 294 and N = 288, respectively; study 2), English and Romanian elite/sub-elite athletes (N = 91, N = 109 respectively; study 3a), Romanian university students involved in sport at elite and sub-elite levels (N = 196; study 3b), and English university student-athletes (N= 295; study 4). Three main questionnaires were used: the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (AGQ; Elliot & McGregor, 2001) (studies 1, 3b, and 4) and the Achievement Goals Questionnaire for Sport (AGQ-S; Conroy, Elliot & Hofer, 2003) (studies 2, 3ab and 4) measured four achievement goals in academic and sport settings, respectively (mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals); the third questionnaire, the Goal Systems Assessment Battery (GSAB; Karoly & Ruehlman, 1995) (all studies) required participants to state their most important personal goal, and measured two goal attributes (efficacy and value) and five self-regulation strategies used during goal pursuit (planning, self-monitoring, social comparison, self-reward and self-criticism). The fourth questionnaire, was the Self-Construal Scale-Revised (SCS-R; Hardin, 2006) which measured individualistic and collectivistic self-definitions in study 3a. Studies 1, 2 and 3a and 3b employed a correlational design, structural equation modelling analyses, and multivariate and univariate analyses of covariance (study 3a only), while study 4 employed a longitudinal design, latent growth curve analyses and structural equation modelling. Studies 1 and 2 Results. The goal-strategy models identified in education (study 1), sport and exercise (study 2) in the UK were very similar to each other, and consisted of both positive and negative paths (see figure A overleaf). Furthermore, in study 1, the total sample was divided into two samples according to the difficulty and specificity of personal goals: students in sample 1 (N = 325) set easy and vague goals, while students in sample 2 (N = 266) set difficult and specific goals. The model found in the total sample was tested again simultaneous in these two samples in order to ascertain the potential moderation effects of goal difficulty and specificity. As the model was invariant across groups it was concluded that personal goal difficulty/specificity was not a moderator of achievement goal relations with self-regulation processes. Finally, in study 2 Map relations with planning/self-monitoring was fully and partially mediated by goal efficacy and value in the sport and exercise domains, respectively. Study 3a and 3b Results. In study 3a, Romanian athletes had higher collectivistic self-construals than English athletes, while the two groups were similar in individualism. After controlling for collectivism, Romanian athletes, regardless of sport type (individual or team sport) had higher scores than English athletes on Pap and Pav goals, social comparison and self-motivation strategies (self-reward and self-criticism); and Romanian team sport athletes had higher scores on Map and planning/self-monitoring than their English counterparts. In study 3b the goal-strategy models identified in moderately competitive academic and physical activity settings in an individualistic West European culture (UK) were tested in highly competitive academic and elite sport settings in a collectivistic East European culture (Romania). The academic and sport domain models identified in Romania were similar to each other, and to those found in the UK. The following differences in model paths were noted in Romania: in the academic domain, four paths were not significant (Map and Mav to efficacy, efficacy to self-reward, and social comparison to self-criticism); and a new negative path was identified, from Map to social comparison; in the sport domain, five paths were not significant (Mav to efficacy, Pap to efficacy and social comparison, efficacy to reward and social comparison to self-criticism) and three new paths emerged, two positive paths, Pav to social comparison, and efficacy to planning/self-monitoring, and one negative path from efficacy to criticism. The positive path from Pav to social comparison (found in highly competitive sport settings) represents the most notable difference between the UK and Romanian models. Study 4 Results. The goal-strategy models identified in academic and sport contexts in studies 1 and 2 (described earlier) emerged again in these settings in study 4 (minus the path from efficacy to reward in both settings, and efficacy to criticism in academia) at three measurement times (start, middle and end of academic year/competitive season). Therefore, the model was stable over time. Unconditional growth curve analyses showed that, during one year, achievement goals and self-regulation processes followed different patterns of change: Map and Pav goals declined, while Pap and Mav goals were stable in education, and all goals declined in sport settings; goal commitment (a composite measure of goal efficacy and value) declined and planning/self-monitoring remained stable (in both settings); social comparison and self-motivation (a composite measure of self-reward and self-criticism) increased in education, while in sport the former was stable and the latter declined . Finally, associative growth curve models showed that in both domains: 1) temporal changes in Map were positively related to changes in goal commitment and planning/monitoring, and changes in the latter were associated with changes in self-motivation; 2) changes in Pap, social comparison and self-motivation were positively related; and 3) Mav changes were not related to changes in SR processes. Conclusion. This thesis advocates a conceptualisation of achievement goals as a dynamic, cyclical interplay between situated reasons, standards and self-regulated action; 2) an exploration of goal standards dimensions beyond the mastery-performance focus with the reason-standard complex; and 3) an expanded achievement motivation and self-regulation model, including the why (achievement goals), the what (personal goals/goal setting), and the how (self-regulated action), where the focus of enquiry is sifted from the correlates to the mechanisms of achievement goal effects.