Notre travail doctoral vise à étudier l'impact du contexte social de l'organisation à un premier niveau, sur les perceptions des employés des ruptures du CP et à un second niveau, sur la performance au travail. Nous soutenons que la perception des employés de la rupture du CP est fortement subjective, et donc, qu'elle dépend majoritairement des repères sociaux que l'employé capte en observant la façon dont l'organisation traite les autres employés. S'appuyant sur ces arguments, l'existence de relations politiques au sein de l'organisation ainsi que les processus de comparaison sociale ont été plaidés comme facteurs contextuels sociaux influençant la perception des employés de la rupture du CP et leurs comportements subséquents de performance au travail. L'enquête a été réalisée sur un échantillon non aléatoire de 322 dyades subordonné-superviseur. Le test des hypothèses a démontré que le contexte social négatif est positivement associé à la rupture du CP au niveau transactionnel et au niveau relationnel. Les ruptures des CP transactionnel et relationnel ont des effets significatifs et négatifs sur les comportements volontaires et obligatoires des employés. L'effet est d'ailleurs légèrement plus fort pour les comportements volontaires que pour les comportements obligatoires. L'importance perçue des promesses non tenues a des effets modérateurs significatifs sur la relation entre la rupture des CP transactionnel et relationnel et sur les comportements volontaires des salariés. En revanche, cette importance n'a pas d'effet modérateur significatif sur la relation entre la rupture du CP et les comportements obligatoires des salariés. / The current study is aimed at investigating the impact of organizational social context on employees' perceptions of PCB and subsequent performance behaviors. We argued that employee's perception of PCB is highly subjective in nature, thus, heavily depends on social cues the employee picks up from the organization's treatment to other coworkers. Based on these arguments, organizational politics and social comparison processes (positive and negative comparisons) were argued as social contextual factors that influence employee's perception of PCB and subsequent performance behaviors. A non-random purposive sample of 322 subordinate-supervisor matching dyads, with 60% response rate, collected from various public & private organizations of Pakistan. The SR model results demonstrated that the negative social contextual factors (organizational politics & negative comparison) had significant positive associations with both transactional and relational PCB. However, the positive social contextual factor (positive comparison) had non-significant effects on both transactional and relational PCB. Both transactional and relational PCB had significant negative effects on employees' extra-role (OCB-I) and in-role behaviors, and the effect size was, slightly, greater for extra-role than in-role behaviors. Perceived importance of broken promises showed significant moderating effects only for the relationship between PCB (transactional & relational) and employees' extra-role behaviors (OCB-I) but not between PCB and in-role behaviors.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Although social comparison has been studied for over 60 years, little research has been done to determine the effects it has on the workplace. Moreover, the explosion of social networking sites and their potential impact on the workplace have been largely overlooked by organizational researchers. Therefore, this study will attempt to evaluate the effect social comparison, specifically through social media, has on work relevant outcomes such as one’s job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and entitlement, moderated by materialism (relevance) and job expectations (attainability) of the referent other. Participants selected from an alumni database of a large Midwestern University were asked to view a manipulated Facebook newsfeed page and then complete a brief survey (N=290). A hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to assess the hypotheses. Results, implications, and limitations are also discussed.

In this study the experiences, perceptions and challenges of being in a mixed-race relationship (M-R) were explored against the backdrop of previous South African pieces of legislation meant to keep the various race groups apart. The study was located within a conceptual framework predominantly informed by a constructivist approach, as well as some tenets from the social constructionist approach. This study focused only on M-R relationships consisting of black and white partners. The couples were recruited through the use of a snowball sampling method. In-depth interviews were used as the primary tool for collecting data. All participants were interviewed by the researcher either at their own homes or in the researcher's office. The collected information was later transcribed and qualitatively analysed. The results of the study indicate that individuals found their involvement in M-R relationships to be a positive experience, and thus resulting in a positive attitude change and a sense of personal growth. M-R couples and their extended families experienced cognitive dissonance which required them to discard their previously internalised racial stereotypes, using strategies such as cognitive differentiation, re-categorization and de-categorization, allowing shifts toward non-racial socially constructed categories. Most of the challenges of being in M-R relationships were experienced on interpersonal and inter-group levels. The losses, disadvantages, challenges, concerns and pains experienced by M-R couples were mainly related to family and social disapproval of the relationship as well as efforts to discourage race mixing. The study concludes that the non-conformist nature of M-R relationships requires from the participants a high level of self-differentiation and individuation that challenges racial norms and cultural collectivism. Albeit being a personal or private matter, a M-R relationship carries the burden of easily being the subject of public discourse. It is in this sense that M-R relationships cannot be understood without taking the socio-political context within which they occur into consideration. / Psychology / D.Phil. (Psychology)

Dominerande kroppsideal är föränderliga över tid och kopplas till samhällets normer, attityder och kultur. Det ideal som dominerats längst är det kvinnliga smalhetsidealet och det manliga muskulösa kroppsidealet. Idag sprids bilden av den ”perfekta” kroppen snabbare än någonsin tidigare och genom media nås allt fler. Ungdomar är en särskilt känslig målgrupp för exponeringen av kroppsideal. Det åtråvärda kroppsidealen är idag kopplade till en ökad psykisk ohälsa bland ungdomar där symtomen är bland annat; depression, ångest och ätstörningar. Som ett resultat av en förändrad attityd i samhället har ett nytt fenomen blivit allt vanligare. Fenomenet är bilder som visar upp kroppar som varierar i storlek och utseende. Även några företag har börjat använda sig av denna nya företeelse, för att göra upp med ouppnåeliga kroppsideal. Syftet med studien har varit att undersöka gymnasieelevers åsikter om det nya fenomenet, för att undersöka om det möjligen kan användas som en hälsofrämjande insatts. En nätbaserad enkätstudie genomfördes där 28 gymnasieelever svarade. Resultatet visade att majoriteten av svarspersonerna hade en positiv attityd till bilder av ”vardagliga kroppar”. Studien visade slutligen att media kan användas som arena för att sända ut hälsofrämjande budskap. Resultatet visade även vikten av att avsändarna för budskapet kodar budskapet meningsfullt och presenterar det på ett sådant sätt så att målgruppen kan ta till sig budskapet. / Dominating body ideal is changing over time and are related to community’s norms, attitudes and culture. The ideal that dominated longest for females is slenderness ideal and for the males, the muscular body ideal. Today spreads the image of the "perfect" body faster than ever before and through the media reaches out to more people. Young adolescents are a particularly vulnerable target group for the exposure of dominating body ideal. The normative body ideals is now linked to the increasing of mental illness among young people whose symptoms include; depression, anxiety and eating disorders. As a result of a change of attitude in society, a new phenomenon has become gradually common. The phenomenon is pictures that shows up bodies that varies in size and appearance. Although some companies have begun to make use of this new phenomenon, to make up with unattainable body ideals. The aim of the study was to explore high school students' opinions about the new phenomenon, to investigate whether it can possibly be used as a health-insert. A web-based questionnaire study was conducted in which 28 high school students responded. The results showed that the majority of the respondents had a positive attitude to images of "everyday bodies." The study last showed that the media can be used as an arena to send out health promotion messages. The result also showed the importance of the senders of the message encodes the message meaningful and presents it in a way so that the intended audience can understand the health message.

近年社群網站Facebook成為品牌宣傳的新渠道，不同地域、年齡、社會階層或消費水準的人都可以不受實體店面的侷限，透過朋友的分享輕鬆接觸到各時尚精品品牌的資訊。於是精品品牌如何在社群人際間的傳遞過程掌握其品牌形象，還有後續構成的品牌效果是本研究欲探討的重點。 本研究以自我一致性、社會比較的角度切入，輔以平衡理論的觀點進一步檢視消費者觀看社群媒體中的朋友分享貼文是否受到品牌、朋友時尚形象與理想自我一致性高低程度不同而影響其品牌態度與購買意願。 本研究以實驗法進行，研究結果如下： 一、消費者在Facebook動態中看到時尚品牌的朋友品牌分享貼文後，品牌形象與消費者理想自我一致高會比一致低，產生更正面的品牌態度，但對購買意願無顯著影響。 二、知覺品質中介「品牌形象與理想自我一致性」對品牌態度的影響; 但對購買意願無中介效果。 三、 「朋友時尚形象與理想自我形象一致性」高低並不會影響品牌與消費者理想自我形象一致性高低對品牌態度。

L’objectif majeur de cette thèse a été d’appréhender les conséquences de la comparaison sociale sur l’auto-évaluation implicite et explicite en termes de prudence, les affects et les comportements à risque. Les participants ont été exposés à un standard de comparaison prudent (standard haut) ou imprudent (standard bas) en matière d’alcool. Les résultats montrent que les sujets confrontés au standard haut se perçoivent implicitement plus imprudents et ressentent plus d’anxiété que les sujets exposés au standard bas. En revanche, le standard de comparaison n’influence pas l’auto-évaluation explicite et les comportements contrôlés. Ces résultats témoignent en faveur d’une dissociation entre les processus automatiques (implicites) et contrôlés (explicites) en jeu dans la comparaison sociale. Au niveau appliqué, nos données suggèrent que dans une campagne de prévention il serait potentiellement plus efficace de mettre en scène un standard prudent plutôt que de montrer un preneur de risque. / The main goal of this PhD research was to study the consequences of social comparison on implicit and explicit self-evaluation in terms of cautiousness, on affect and on risk-taking behavior. In a series of studies, participants were exposed to a comparison standard who displayed either cautious (high standard) or reckless (low standard) drinking behavior. Results show that participants confronted with the high standard implicitly perceive themselves as more reckless and experience higher levels of anxiety than participants exposed to the low standard. On the other hand, the comparison standard does not influence explicit self-evaluation and controlled behaviors. These results indicate that there might be a dissociation between automatic (implicit) and controlled (explicit) processes involved in social comparison. On an applied level, regarding alcohol prevention campaigns, our findings suggest that it could be more effective to show a cautious standard rather than a reckless one.

Abstract Health behaviour change is challenging and is addressed by the international community. Many people try to effect change for a healthier lifestyle, but they find it difficult to sustain their new habits. Today, technological applications support people who want to change their behaviour, oftentimes by utilising social influence: The influence of others on one’s behaviour. Social influence consists of different aspects, the particularities of which are often neglected in design. This thesis focusses on the design of the social comparison aspect of social influence. Social comparison psychology supports the view that when facing a lack of objective measurements, people tend to compare themselves to others who are similar to them for self-evaluation, self-enhancement, self-prediction, and coping. In psychology, social comparison theory has shown great potential in the aforementioned areas as well as challenges regarding its application. In the design of technology, social comparison theory has been utilised but lacks extensive exploration. In this thesis, four perspectives are considered to better understand social comparison in design: Existing designs, designers’ perspective, healthcare professionals’ perspective, and user research for social comparison. The four perspectives are explored using qualitative methodologies and through design science research. The knowledge took the form of a Multiple-perspective Approach Design (MAD) for social comparison features in technology that supports health behaviour change. MAD aims to support designers when working with social comparison in health behaviour change, by presenting social comparison potentials and challenges informed by the different perspectives. MAD builds upon the knowledge transferred from the field of psychology regarding social comparison and on the research conducted to understand the four perspectives of social comparison. / Tiivistelmä Terveyskäyttäytymisen muutos on haastavaa ja sitä käsittelee kansainvälinen yhteisö. Monet ihmiset yrittävät tehdä muutoksia kohti terveellisempiä elämäntapoja, mutta heidän on vaikea ylläpitää uusia tapojaan. Tänä päivänä teknologiset sovellukset tukevat ihmisiä, jotka haluavat muuttaa käyttäytymistään, usein hyödyntämällä sosiaalista vaikutusta: toisten vaikutusta omaan käyttäytymiseen. Sosiaalinen vaikutus koostuu erilaisista näkökulmista, joiden erityispiirteitä on usein laiminlyöty suunnittelussa. Tässä opinnäytetyössä keskitytään sosiaalisen vertailun näkökulman suunnitteluun sosiaalisessa vaikutuksessa. Sosiaalisen vertailun psykologia tukee näkemystä siitä, että objektiivisten mittausten puuttuessa, ihmiset pyrkivät vertaamaan itseään muihin, jotka ovat samankaltaisia, itsearvioinnin, itsensä vahvistamisen, itsearvioinnin ja selviytymisen kannalta. Psykologiassa sosiaalisen vertailun teoria on osoittanut potentiaalinsa edellä mainituilla aloilla, mutta sen soveltamiseen liittyy haasteita. Sosiaalisen vertailun teoriaa on hyödynnetty teknologian suunnittelussa, mutta laaja-alaisempi tutkimus aiheesta on puutteellista. Tässä opinnäytetyössä tarkastellaan neljää näkökulmaa ymmärtämään paremmin sosiaalista vertailua suunnittelussa: Olemassa olevat mallit, suunnittelijoiden näkökulma, terveydenhuollon ammattilaisten näkökulma ja käyttäjätutkimus sosiaaliseen vertailuun. Näitä neljää näkökulmaa tutkitaan käyttämällä laadullisia tutkimusmenetelmiä ja suunnittelutieteellistä tutkimusta. Kerätyn tiedon perusteella muodostettiin monia toimijoita tarkasteleva lähestymistapa suunnitteluun (MAD), joka koskee sosiaalisen vertailun ominaisuuksia teknologiassa, joka tukee terveyskäyttäytymisen muutosta. MAD pyrkii tukemaan suunnittelijoita, jotka työskentelevät sosiaalisen vertailun parissa terveyskäyttäytymisen muutoksessa, esittämällä sosiaalisen vertailun mahdollisuuksia ja haasteita, joita on kerätty eri näkökulmista. MAD perustuu psykologian alalta kerättyyn tietämykseen sosiaalista vertailusta ja toteutettuun tutkimukseen, joka on tehty sosiaalisen vertailun neljän näkökulman ymmärtämiseksi.

本研究的主旨在瞭解壽險業務員對於業績比賽的重要性、業績冠軍的相似性以及個人對於業績表現的控制力評估，是否會影響業務員對於自己業績表現不如他人訊息的因應，並且探討個人所採用的因應方式與後續工作投入程度的關係。本研究的樣本為國內六家壽險公司的323位現職業務員，以問卷調查的方式進行研究，使用的研究工具包含『業績比賽相關題目』、『認知評估量表』、『相似性評估量表』、『因應策略量表』及『工作投入量表』，資料分析主要採用因素分析與變異數分析等方法。 本研究的結果主要為：(一)自我關聯程度評估對於『情緒虛理』、『問題解決』與『逆來順受』因應策略產生顯著影響，並且當個人對於業績比賽的自我關聯程度評估高時，曾較自我關聯評估低組，採用較多的因應策略，而控制力變項則對於『情緒處理』、『問題解決』與『尋求支持』三種因應策略造成顯著影響，即當個人對於業績進步的控制感高時，會較控制感低的業務員，採用較少的『情緒處理』與『尋求支持』，而採用較多的『問題解決』方式來面對業績比賽不如他人的情形。(二)採用較多『情緒處理』因應策略的業務員，其後續的工作投入情形會低於採用較少本策略的業務員；而在『問題解決』因應上，則獲致相反的結果，即採用較多此策略者，其工作投入情形較高。(三)在人口統計變項中，不同的性別對於自我關聯程度、控制力、情緒處理與尋求支持因應策略、工作即生活與工作投入量表總分有影響，而不同年齡則在逆來順受與尋求支持兩變項上有差異，婚姻狀況在尋求支持、工作即生活及工作投入量表總分上有差異，不同的組織別，其控制力、問題解決與尋求支持因應策略亦有所不同。 最後，本研究根據所得結果進行檢討，並對於企業界及後續研究提出一些建議。

本研究以TEPS資料庫第二、三波追蹤樣本為資料來源，使用多元迴歸分析中的OLS（ordinal least squares）最小平方法，分析不同管教方式之父母比較行為如何影響子女之綜合能力。刪除作答不全的缺失值後，共計取得有效樣本為2,595人。 研究結果顯示：父母管教方式若以雙向度作為分類，以高反應（74.6％）與高要求（69.2％）者居多，綜合兩大面向後，有52.40％的父母採取開明權威型的管教方式，有22.20％的父母為專制權威型，有16.90％的父母為寬鬆放任型，有8.50％的父母是忽視冷漠型。此外，父母最常把子女與其同班同學（45.5％）進行比較，其次依序為鄰居小孩、同事或朋友小孩（42.0％）、同年齡的親戚（37.0％）、兄弟姊妹（26.9％），父母最少拿自己小時候（18.8％）與子女相比。 經由多元迴歸分析之後得知，無論是開明權威、專制權威、寬鬆放任或忽視冷漠型的父母，凡拿子女與其「同班同學」比較者，子女的綜合能力越高，達到統計顯著水準；但是當父母持專制權威的管教方式時，無論有無加入控制變項（子女性別、父母教育程度和家庭月收入），有與「同班同學」和「父母小時候」比較者，其綜合能力顯著越高，但與「同年齡親戚」比較者，其綜合能力顯著越低。 / The research was to explore the effects of parenting style, parental comparison, and the interaction of them on children’s general ability. Data were collected from Taiwan Education Panel Survey (TEPS), the core panel in the second and the third wave. Total number of the students from high school reduced to 2,595 people after listwise deletion. We explored the effects by using ordinal least squares in the multiple regression analysis. The results showed that there were 74.6% high-respective parents, and 69.2% high-demanding ones. Mixed with the two dimensions, demanding and responsive, there were 52.40% authoritative parents, 22.20% authoritarian ones, 16.90% indulgent ones, and 8.50% neglectful ones. Besides, parents compared their children with their classmates (45.5%), neighbors (42.0%), cousins (37.0%), siblings (26.9%), and parents’ childhood (18.8%). After regression, the results showed in the following ways. First, no matter what the parenting style was, children who were compared with classmates had significantly higher ability. Whether adding the control variables like children’ gender, parents’ education level and family monthly income or not, when parents were authoritarian, children compared with classmates and parents’ childhood had significantly higher ability. Meanwhile, if they were compared with cousins, then they had significantly lower ability. Keywords: Taiwan Education Panel Survey (TEPS), multiple regression analysis, parenting style, social comparison, general ability

本研究嘗試從社會比較理論的觀點出發，欲探討線上參考團體（即網友意見）對消費者行為之影響。經由文獻回顧，本研究釐清了社會比較行為與參考團體影響力之基本意涵與兩者間之關係，並引入產品特性、自我監控程度以及資訊搜尋價值等變項，欲探討此三變項於上述關係中之干擾效果是否存在。 本研究以台大批踢踢實業坊作為施測場域，利用網路問卷蒐集使用者資料。調查發現，受訪者之社會比較行為（區分為反射式評估和對照式評估）與線上參考團體之影響力（區分為資訊依賴、來源可信度及購買選擇三構面）之間，確實可能存在顯著關聯性與影響關係。而瀏覽不同產品特性、具有不同自我監控程度或是獲得不同程度資訊搜尋價值之受訪者，他們受到線上參考團體影響之程度亦有所差異。然而，上述三變項在社會比較行為與線上參考團體影響力兩者關係間之干擾效果未被證實。