Los estudios sobre riqueza léxica con participantes suecos tienen, en su gran mayoría, la L2 inglés como lengua objeto. A día de hoy, no se conocen investigaciones que tengan como lengua objeto el español. Respecto a los participantes, suelen ser estudiantes con un nivel de competencia alto. El presente estudio se centra en la L3 español y estudiantes de nivel bajo e intermedio. En concreto, las muestras de lengua analizadas son narrativas escritas por 180 estudiantes suecos de bachillerato, elicitadas a través de una serie de viñetas. De acuerdo con las dos preguntas de investigación, este trabajo tiene como objetivo principal arrojar luz sobre la relación entre diversidad léxica y competencia léxica y morfosintáctica en la L3 español. En segundo lugar, se comparan varias medidas de diversidad léxica en busca de una medida apta para discriminar de una manera fiable entre diferentes niveles de competencia en la lengua meta. Los datos demuestran un efecto tangible del nivel de competencia sobre la diversidad léxica, aunque de las comparaciones que resultan ser estadísticamente significativas se manifiesta una fuerte influencia del factor edad. Respecto a las medidas, el Índice de Guiraud y el indicador Carroll son las únicas que discriminan significativamente entre los participantes más jóvenes, y también resultan idóneas a discriminar en dos comparaciones del grupo más mayor. Por consiguiente, se consideran las medidas más fiables entre las que se han utilizado en el estudio. Sin embargo, los resultados estadísticos de las dos medidas coinciden a tal punto que se puede afirmar que se trata de dos versiones de la misma medida, aunque muestran valores numéricos diferentes. / Research on lexical richness with Swedish subjects have mostly English as a target language. At the present time, we cannot find investigations having Spanish as a target language. Subjects are usually university students with high proficiency. This study focuses on Spanish as a third language and students with low/intermediate proficiency. Language samples consist of 180 narratives written by Swedish high-school students with a low/intermediate average proficiency in Spanish. The samples have been elicited by means of pictures. According to the two research questions, the main aim of the present study is investigating the relationship between lexical diversity and lexical and morphosyntactic proficiency in Spanish as a third language. Secondly, we compare several measures of lexical diversity searching for results that can reliably discriminate between different proficiency levels in Spanish. The data show a clear effect of proficiency on lexical diversity, even though statistically significant comparisons also point out the influence of the age factor. Regarding the measures, Guiraud’s Index and Carroll’s indicator are the only ones that significantly discriminate among younger participants. They have also proved to be suitable for discriminating comparisons within the older participants’ group. Nevertheless, the statistical results of these two measures correspond to such a high degree that we can consider them as two versions of the same measure, even if they provide different numerical values.

nÃo hà / Nas Ãltimas dÃcadas, especialmente no Brasil, houve um crescimento no interesse sobre aquisiÃÃo de outras lÃnguas estrangeiras alÃm do inglÃs. Tal interesse tem incentivado diversas pesquisas acerca do Multilinguismo. Considerando a complexidade do processo de aquisiÃÃo de lÃnguas, nos indagamos acerca de que forma a aquisiÃÃo de uma lÃngua estrangeira à afetada pela familiaridade com outra lÃngua estrangeira em momento anterior ao inÃcio do processo de aquisiÃÃo dessa nova lÃngua. Em outras palavras, nos questionamos sobre as similaridades e diferenÃas no processo de aquisiÃÃo da lÃngua inglesa por aprendizes que jà haviam estudado outra(s) lÃngua(s) estrangeira(s) anteriormente e por aqueles para quem o inglÃs era a primeira lÃngua estrangeira a ser estudada. A partir desses questionamentos e apoiados nos estudos de aquisiÃÃo de segunda lÃngua de Swain (1985), Chomsky (1959), Ellis (1975) e Selinker (2008), de aquisiÃÃo de terceira e outras lÃnguas de Cenoz (2001, 2002 e 2008), Jessner (2007) e Hammarberg (1998), nos conceitos de InterlÃngua de Selinker (1972) e Sharwood (1994) e de TransferÃncia LinguÃstica de Odlin (1989), Boechat (2008), Brito (2008) e Corder (1983), buscamos identificar e diagnosticar os tipos de erros cometidos, no uso dos pronomes pessoais e possessivos do inglÃs, por aprendizes dessa lÃngua como primeira lÃngua estrangeira e por aqueles que jà tinham familiaridade com outra(s) lÃngua(s). Delineamos uma pesquisa quali-quantitativa, que analisou os resultados obtidos em duas tarefas escritas â uma controlada de mÃltipla escolha e outra livre de produÃÃo textual â por aprendizes de inglÃs em trÃs nÃveis de proficiÃncia linguÃstica: bÃsico (Semestre II), prÃ-intermediÃrio (Semestre IV) e intermediÃrio (Semestre VI), da Casa de Cultura BritÃnica, subdividos em dois grupos: aprendizes de inglÃs como primeira LE e aprendizes de inglÃs como segunda LE. Para cada grupo (com base no nÃvel de proficiÃncia) e sub-grupo (os que jà tinham estudado uma outra lÃngua estrangeira e os que nunca tinham estudado outra lÃngua) foram contabilizados o nÃmero e os tipos de erros cometidos em cada uma das tarefas. Os resultados obtidos na tarefa controlada permitiram-nos constatar que a porcentagem de erros diminuiu, de modo geral, do semestre II para o semestre VI. Os erros dos grupos sem LE anterior e os dos grupos com LE anterior tambÃm diminuÃram de um semestre para o outro. A comparaÃÃo dos erros cometidos pelo grupo de aprendizes com LE anterior nos trÃs semestres estudados revelou que houve uma diminuiÃÃo na porcentagem de erros cometidos por esse grupo em relaÃÃo ao grupo que nÃo havia estudado outra lÃngua estrangeira antes do inglÃs, diminuindo tambÃm de um semestre para outro. Entretanto, o teste de Wilcoxon comparando os resultados, por participantes, de cada grupo nos trÃs semestres, demonstrou que as diferenÃas sÃo significativas apenas no semestre II, o que nos diz que ter uma lÃngua estrangeira prÃvia ajuda na aquisiÃÃo dos pronomes pessoais e possessivos no inÃcio do estudo, mas nÃo à muito significativo nos semestres seguintes; assim, nÃo nos à permitido tecer generalizaÃÃes acerca dessas diferenÃas para outros grupos. A anÃlise das produÃÃes textuais revelou que, nos trÃs semestres analisados, o erro mais recorrente foi o de apagamento de sujeito, possivelmente tanto como consequÃncia da influÃncia da lÃngua materna como do carÃter pro-drop do pronome sujeito das lÃnguas anteriormente estudadas pelos participantes dos grupos com LE. Os pronomes mais comumente apagados nas produÃÃes foram os do caso reto: I, primeira pessoa singular; IT, neutro, terceira pessoa singular; e SHE e HE, terceira pessoa do singular. Os casos encontrados de erros de inserÃÃo corresponderam ao uso irregular do pronome IT. Jà os erros de substituiÃÃo ocorreram pela troca do pronome oblÃquo pelo do caso reto, troca do pronome possessivo pelo do caso reto, pronome possessivo pelo pronome oblÃquo, pronome do caso reto pelo oblÃquo e pronome possessivo por outro possessivo, mas de outra pessoa. Em suma, podemos concluir que o conhecimento de outras regras de uso pronominal e o contato com outra lÃngua estrangeira à capaz de fazer o aprendiz, no mÃnimo, refletir sobre regras de uso da nova LE e fazer uso de estratÃgias de aprendizagem. Enquanto os erros que ocorreram no grupo sem LE anterior podem, em sua maioria, ser explicados pela transferÃncia da lÃngua materna, no grupo com LE anterior, os erros podem, em sua maioria, ser explicados pelo conhecimento e transferÃncia de estruturas pronominais da LE anterior para o inglÃs. / In the last decades, especially in Brazil, there has been a growing interest in learning other foreign languages besides English. This interest has led to research on Multilingualism, which, in turn, has increased the number of studies on the mental processes involved in the acquisition of one or more foreign languages. The purpose of this study was to investigate the similarities and the differences in the process of learning English by Brazilians who had already studied other foreign languages prior to English and by those to whom English was the first foreign language to be studied. This study was based on the studies of: second language acquisition by Swain (1985), Chomsky (1959), Ellis (1975) and Selinker (2008); acquisition of a third or other languages by Cenoz (2001, 2002 and 2008), Jessner (2007) and Hammarberg (1998); Interlanguage by Selinker (1972) and Sharwood (1994); and Linguistic Transference by Odlin (1989), Boechat (2008), Brito (2008) and Corder (1983). The research aimed at identifying and classifying the types of errors made in the use of personal pronouns and possessive adjectives in English by language learners for whom English was their first foreign language and by language learners who had previously studied another foreign language. This quali-quantitative study examined the results obtained from the completion of two different tasks â a controlled multiple-choice task and a written composition â by learners of English at three different proficiency levels â basic (Semester II), pre-intermediate (Semester IV) and intermediate (Semester VI) â in Casa de Cultura BritÃnica (an outreach program of the Federal University of CearÃ), divided into two groups: learners of English as first foreign language and learners of English as a second/third foreign language. For each group (based on the level of proficiency) and sub-group (distinguished by having studied another foreign language prior to English or not), the number and the type of errors made in the completion of the two tasks were analyzed. The results obtained from the multiple-choice task indicate that the percentage of errors decreased from Semester II to Semester VI. The errors made by both groups â the ones that had not studied a foreign language prior to English and the ones that had studied another foreign language prior to English decreased from one semester to another. The comparison of the errors made by the groups that had studied another foreign language prior to English in the three semesters also suggests a decrease in the number of errors made by the groups in relation to years of study. However, the Wilcoxon test comparing the results among the participants of each group in the three semesters demonstrated that the differences are only significant in semester II, which tells us that having a previous foreign language helps in the acquisition of subject and possessive pronouns at the beginning of the learning process, but it is not very significant in the following semesters. Therefore, is not possible to make generalizations of these differences to other groups.The analysis of compositions written by the two groups in the three semesters identified the omission of the subject pronoun as the most frequent error, possibly because of the influence of the learnersâ native language, Portuguese, which allows for the ellipsis of the subject of a sentence. The learners in the group that had studied another foreign language prior to English had either studied Spanish or Italian which also permit the ellipsis of the subject. The most frequently omitted pronouns were I, followed by IT, SHE and HE. Insertion errors occurred by inserting the pronoun IT when it was unnecessary. Substitution errors were made in the following situations: exchanging the object pronoun for the subject pronoun, using the possessive adjective in place of the subject pronoun or the object pronoun. Overall results indicate that knowledge of the rules for pronoun use in other languages and familiarity with the process of acquiring another language aided learners in the selection and use of grammatical structures. Errors made by the group who had not studied another language prior to English can be attributed to the transference of grammatical structures from the native language to the foreign language being learned, while errors made by those who had studied another foreign language can be the result of the transference of grammatical structures from the previously studied foreign language to the one being learned.

This study explores the possibilities of phonetic category formation in early bilingual Turkish-Swedish learners of English. Specifically, the high-front unrounded vowels across the three languages Turkish, Swedish and English are investigated. The bilinguals are compared to L2 learners of English with Turkish and Swedish as their first language, respectively, to aim to see if the English vowel categories /i/ and /ɪ/ would be harder to establish, since the bilinguals already have three similar categories across two languages. It is hypothesized that if the bilinguals have managed to keep the Turkish and Swedish categories separate, it will have made it more difficult to establish new categories for English, since having a larger phonological inventory is thought to increase the likelihood of equivalence classification in subsequent learning. The results reveal that all three groups of speakers produced English /ɪ/ similarly to one another, but the L1 Swedish speakers made the most consistent distinction of English /ɪ/ compared to the other vowels. Furthermore, the bilinguals produced the Swedish long allophone [iː] markedly differently than the monolingual Swedish speakers. The bilinguals’ categories for Turkish /i/, English /i/ and Swedish [ɪ] had merged except in one speaker, who produced Turkish /i/ slightly further back than the Swedish short allophone. This speaker had not established a new category for English /ɪ/, but since several of the bilinguals who had merged categories had not established a new category for English /ɪ/ either, the hypothesis is not directly supported. In other words, since L2 Swedish [ɪ] had merged with L1 Turkish /i/ for almost all bilinguals, this study does not provide evidence that bilinguals’ increased number of phonetic categories across two languages makes it easier or more difficult to establish new categories for an L3.

Cette étude relève de la didactique des langues et s´inscrit dans la réflexion sur le plurilinguisme et l’acquisition d’une troisième langue. Plus particulièrement, cette étude examine le phénomène de l’activation d’une autre langue que celle attendue dans la production orale en français d’étudiants grecs suivant des cours dans le secteur LANSAD à l’Université d’Athènes. Nous avons envisagé le développement d’une troisième langue comme un processus émergentiste et la démarche adoptée dans notre travail suppose de se focaliser à sa dimension psycholinguistique. Dans le présent travail, nous tenterons de décrire un microcontexte, celui de l’acquisition du français comme troisième langue, auprès d’adultes apprenant cette langue dans un milieu guidé et hétéroglotte. Notre objectif est de décrire dans un premier temps le phénomène de l’activation d’une autre langue que celle attendue, tel qu’il se manifeste dans la production orale du discours en français L/C3, ainsi que l’activité métalinguistique chez les apprenants. Ensuite, la langue y est envisagée dans notre travail comme un ensemble de pratiques et de représentations.Nous avons réuni un corpus oral afin d’explorer l’activation du grec L/C1 et de l’anglais L/C 2, lors de la production orale en français L/C3 d’apprenants grecs. La recherche de terrain a été conduite en Grèce, au sein d’un établissement public d’enseignement supérieur, auprès d’étudiants suivant des cours de français à l’Université d’Athènes. Il s’agit d’une population plurilingue où le français constitue au moins la troisième langue : ils ont comme première langue le grec et ont déjà appris l’anglais, l’allemand et d’autres langues au cours de leur scolarisation. / This study lies in the field of foreign language education, but it also refers to multilingualism and third language acquisition. In particular, this study examines the activation of another language in the speech production of greek-speaking learners of french as a foreign language. The study refers to ESP learners at university level. We postulate third language development as an emergent process and the approach adopted is focused in the psycholinguistique dimension. In this rechearch we are trying to describe a microcontext, this of the acquisition of French as a third language, whith adults learning the language in a guided and heteroglossic environment. Our goal is to describe the phenomenon of the activation of a language other than expected, manifested in oral speech production in French L/C3, as well as the metalinguistic activity that accompanies. Also, the language is considered in our work as a set of practices and representations. We have assembled an oral corpus to explore the activation of L/C1 Greek and English L / C 2 in the oral production of L/C3 French Greek learners. Field research was conducted in Greece, in a public institution of higher education, with students taking courses in French at the University of Athens. It is a multilingual population where French is at least the third language as their first language is Greek and they have learned English, German and other languages during their schooling.

Swedish school today is a mixture of children who come from different countries and speak different languages. Due to conflicts and war raging in various parts of the world, the refugee stream of people seeking asylum in Sweden has put much pressure on the schools around the country. Studies show that immigrant children fall behind in the education and that students whose first language is not Swedish do not reach the knowledge requirements and goals for English to the same degree of success as other groups of students. The aim for this thesis was to investigate what teachers in a K-3 English classrooms in Sweden do to support immigrant students, and what can be found in previous research to explain such poor performance. The aim was also to explore what methods teachers report using and how these methods are connected to Lgr11 and previous research. The use of Swedish instead of the target language when teaching English seems to be dominating in the schools. Since research found shows that children tend to use their first language when learning additional languages, the use of Swedish becomes demanding and confusing for the immigrant students: they end up having to learn a new language in a new language.

<p>The present study concerns cross-linguistic influence in the spoken French of multilingual learners. The main purpose is to investigate to what degree, and in what manner, previously acquired languages (L1, L2(s)) influence the target language, L3. Given the fact that the study only concerns spoken interlanguage, it makes use of a psycholinguistic perspective, which takes models of oral production into account.</p><p>The analysis is divided into two main parts. The first concerns the oral production of 30 Swedish learners of French, who fall into three groups according to their previous exposure to French: beginners, secondary school students and university students. The results show that proficiency in the L3 is crucial in at least two ways. First, there is a correlation between the level of proficiency in the L3 and the number of instances of cross-linguistic influence in that the least advanced learners produce the highest number of cross-linguistic lexemes, whereas the most advanced learners produce the lowest number. Second, the level of proficiency in the L3 is decisive for the number of background languages (L1, L2) used during oral production in L3: the lower the proficiency in the L3, the more background languages are used, and vice versa.</p><p>The second part of the analysis contains six case studies of learners with partly different L1s and L2s. It focuses on the roles of the background languages during conversation in L3 and on the factors contributing to the attribution of these roles. The results point at both similarities and differences between the learners with respect to the roles of the background languages. A result common to all the learners is the use of Swedish L1/L2 and English L1 as an instrumental language, i.e. a language used rather strategically with a communicative purpose. The use of these languages in this function seems to be due to the fact that Swedish and English are shared languages between the learner and the interlocutor.</p>

Notre recherche relève de la didactique des langues et s´inscrit dans la réflexion sur le plurilinguisme et l’acquisition des langues. Cette étude examine le processus d’activation partielle d’une langue autre que la langue cible pendant l’apprentissage des langues. Notre étude a été conduite dans deux établissements scolaires au Liban auprès des apprenantes des classes d’EB7, possédant un répertoire langagier plurilingue et ayant appris la diglossie arabe comme l’arabe (dans une version dialectale à la maison et standard à l’école) comme L1 et la langue française comme L2 et l’anglais comme L3. Lors de leur apprentissage et production du français L2 et de l’anglais L3, ils mettent en œuvre leur compétence plurilingue à travers l’activation partielle de leur potentiel plurilingue. Nous allons montrer quelles sont les processus cognitifs qui entrent en jeu lors de l’apprentissage de la nouvelle langue l’anglais L3. Ainsi que les facteurs qui conditionnent l’activation des langues connues par les apprenantes et à quel niveau linguistique se réalise le plus fréquemment l’activation partielle de la langue autre langue que la langue cible. / Our research comes from the didactics of languages and is part of the reflection on plurilingualism and the acquisition of languages. This study examines the process of partial activation of a language other than the target language during language learning.Our study was carried out in two schools in Lebanon with students of EB7 classes, having a multilingual language repertoire and having learned the Arabic diglossic language as L1 and the French language as L2 and English as L3.During their apprenticeship and production of the French L2 and the English L3, they apply their plurilingual competence through the partial activation of their plurilingual potential.We will show what are the cognitive processes that come into play when learning the new L3 English language. As well as the factors that condition the activation of the languages known by the learners, and at which linguistic level, is most frequently realised, the partial activation of the language other than the target language.

The present study concerns cross-linguistic influence in the spoken French of multilingual learners. The main purpose is to investigate to what degree, and in what manner, previously acquired languages (L1, L2(s)) influence the target language, L3. Given the fact that the study only concerns spoken interlanguage, it makes use of a psycholinguistic perspective, which takes models of oral production into account. The analysis is divided into two main parts. The first concerns the oral production of 30 Swedish learners of French, who fall into three groups according to their previous exposure to French: beginners, secondary school students and university students. The results show that proficiency in the L3 is crucial in at least two ways. First, there is a correlation between the level of proficiency in the L3 and the number of instances of cross-linguistic influence in that the least advanced learners produce the highest number of cross-linguistic lexemes, whereas the most advanced learners produce the lowest number. Second, the level of proficiency in the L3 is decisive for the number of background languages (L1, L2) used during oral production in L3: the lower the proficiency in the L3, the more background languages are used, and vice versa. The second part of the analysis contains six case studies of learners with partly different L1s and L2s. It focuses on the roles of the background languages during conversation in L3 and on the factors contributing to the attribution of these roles. The results point at both similarities and differences between the learners with respect to the roles of the background languages. A result common to all the learners is the use of Swedish L1/L2 and English L1 as an instrumental language, i.e. a language used rather strategically with a communicative purpose. The use of these languages in this function seems to be due to the fact that Swedish and English are shared languages between the learner and the interlocutor.

Various studies have indicated during the past decade that language transfer in L3 may not only stem from L1 but from L2 as well, and that it might sometimes even be stronger from L2, depending on certain factors that facilitate or inhibit transfer. This phenomenon of L2 as the main transfer source in L3 has often been referred to as the ”L2 status factor” (Hammarberg, 2001). The L2 status factor hypothesis expects that the priorly acquired language which scores the highest in several transfer factors will adopt the role of ”external supplier language” (Hammarberg, 2001), i.e. it will be the main source of transfer providing L3 with linguistic features. Namely, the factors that have hitherto been proposed to condition transfer are: typology, psychotypology, proficiency, and psychoaffective factors. The aim of this investigation is to compare the transfer that two groups might exhibit with regard to the English existential expletive pronoun (there), in order to account to whether transfer in L3 might be stronger from L2 than from L1 in this syntactic context. One group consists of subjects with different L1s, L2 Swedish and L3 English; the other is formed by L1 Swedish and L2 English speakers. The informants are aged 13-14, speak the L1s and Swedish (nearly) fluently and English at a basic/intermediate level. Basing the study on the L2 status factor hypothesis, and taking several transfer factors into consideration when analyzing the collected written data, the results are discussed both from a general perspective (from aggregate group scores) and from a micro-perspective (by tracing individual differences). The results obtained suggest that transfer in L3 appears to be stronger from L2 than from L1 when evaluating the aggregate group scores, but only in some cases (and not in most) when examining the individuals separately.

Cette recherche traite de l’influence translinguistique qu’exercent des langues apprises antérieurement sur l’apprentissage du français L2, L3 et L4 par des apprenants hellénophones. Une étude comparative a été menée auprès de 13 apprenants de français de niveaux linguistiques différents. La référence aux entités et l’expression de la temporalité ont été analysées dans les productions orales et écrites de ces sujets. / This work presents a study of the cross-linguistic influence of previously learned languages in second, third and fourth language acquisition, as it is the case for Greekspeaking learners of French as foreign language (FLE). A comparative study is conducted among 13 learners of English who have different linguistic background and proficiency. Reference to entities and the expression of temporality have been analyzed in the oral and the written data provided by the participants to the study.