The stress system is essential for humans and other organisms to survive. However, when stress is prolonged it can have pathological effects on the brain. To experience long-term unemployment is often stressful, for it has been shown to correlate with depression, low self- esteem, learned helplessness and self-destructive behavior. Long-term unemployment also seems to have physiological consequences, for it has been shown to correlate with cortisol dysregulation. The hippocampus is a highly adaptable part of the brain located in the temporal lobe and is long known for its sensitivity to cortisol dysregulation due to stress. The aim of this thesis is to study how long-term unemployment affects physical and psychological well- being, focusing in particular upon finding out whether it affects the hippocampus. The results suggest that that the kind of stress caused by long-term unemployment is similar to the stress affecting the hippocampus. It thus seems to be a reasonably hypothesis that long-term unemployment has a negative influence upon the brain, and the hippocampus in particular.However, there is an additional issue that one needs to take into account. For some studies have shown that people with poor mental health are more likely to be unemployed. If poor mental health is associated with physiological disorders (including a damaged hippocampus), this implies that not only can long-term unemployment (via stress) affect the hippocampus, but a damaged hippocampus (along with other physiological factors) can increase the probability to become unemployed. This means that the relationship between long-term unemployment and a damaged hippocampus need not be a one-way causal relationship.

Mental illness is often associated with social isolation, unemployment and limited community participation. Mental health rehabilitation services aim to decrease these psychosocial effects of illness and encourage better community integration for mental health consumers. Volunteer work is one avenue in which consumers can become actively involved with their local communities. However whilst often supported clinically, limited empirical evidence exists which supports the use of volunteer work as a potential mode of rehabilitation for consumers. The overall aim of this study was to document consumer perceptions and experiences with volunteer work and to identify if participation in volunteer work has a positive impact on their mental health. Phase one of this study involved in-depth interviews with nine consumers currently volunteering. Themes identified from these interviews supported the notion that volunteer work is a meaningful occupation for consumers and one which promotes community integration and supports consumer recovery. Findings from the interviews also guided the development of a volunteer scale for later use within the study. Phase two involved the development and pilot testing of a volunteering questionnaire which measured consumer attitudes and experiences with volunteer work. This scale was combined with other standardised tests which measured the mental health variables of personal empowerment and quality of life. Phase three involved the administration of the questionnaire battery developed in phase two. The battery was distributed and completed by thirty consumers, including both those who were and were not volunteering. Analysis conducted identified that overall consumers held a positive view of volunteer work, believing it was a way of developing work skills, friendships and promoting positive mental health. / Analysis comparing the volunteering to the non volunteering group indicated that those volunteering experienced better quality of life, specifically within the psychological health, social relationships and personal environment domains. This provides support for the hypothesis that participation in volunteer work promotes consumer recovery. However, age was identified as a potential confounding variable and so the significant results should be viewed with caution. Cost, stigma and becoming unwell during volunteering were identified as barriers to consumer participation. It is argued that mental health services are in a good position to support consumers not only to access but also to maintain ongoing volunteer participation. To date minimal evidence has existed that supported this intervention. This study has begun to fill this research void, however, small study numbers and the cross-sectional, descriptive design make establishing a cause and effect relationship impossible. It would thus be beneficial to conduct a larger study investigating the impact further, including measuring the influence of any interventions that promote consumer participation in volunteer work, such as supported volunteering.

This thesis is comprised of a series of published papers relating to the evaluation of active assistance measures for the unemployed in Australia. It offers both applied evaluations of active assistance measures as well as critical assessment of the evaluation approaches that have dominated the literature and policy formation in Australia. "Active" assistance for the unemployed is distinguished from "passive" assistance, such as income support.The motivation behind the work lies in the fact that a very large amount of public expenditure is directed to active assistance for the unemployed. Over $2 billion dollars was spent on labour market programs at the height of the Working Nation package in each of 1995-96 and 1996-97, and $1.5 billion was allocated to "labour market assistance to jobseekers and industry" in the most recent (2001-02) Commonwealth budget. Despite this considerable past and ongoing expenditure, the evaluation effort in Australia has been far short of international best practice. As a consequence, there is no convincing empirical evidence as to how effectively these public resources are being used, or of the relative merits of various options in the design of active interventions for the unemployed.Ultimately, the goal of the research is to improve supply-side policies designed to address unemployment. As stated, it aims to do this through original empirical evaluations of programs and through critical assessment of existing evaluations and institutional arrangements.

This research examines active labour market policy, and in particular, training schemes targeted towards unemployed individuals who are the most disadvantaged in the labour market in Aotearoa/New Zealand. The purpose of this research is to first, highlight the main tensions between the current policy frameworks for the design and the practice of such training. The second purpose is to offer explanations for these tensions by highlighting the competitive free-market and rational individualistic assumptions that underpin the current frameworks and, in particular, how these constrain the 'choices' and possibilities for the most disadvantaged unemployed. The study identifies and examines State Active Neoliberalism, as a specific place-time articulation of neoliberalism, adopted by two successive Labour-led governments in New Zealand from 1999-2005. Thirdly, a community development theoretical framework is proposed to underpin recommendations that could support more enabling and empowering policies for the most disadvantaged unemployed and the organisations that seek to assist them. The thesis draws on case studies of major State-funded training schemes for long-term unemployed individuals to illustrate the 'on-the-ground' consequences of the discursive shifts in policy rhetoric. This research combines an in-depth, qualitative field research approach with a critical analysis of policy frameworks and political representations of unemployment, training and labour market issues in documents, publications and communications. The findings of this research are that a competitive quasi-market for training provision and the increased reliance on narrow outcome measurements, position commercial imperatives ahead of assisting the most disadvantaged unemployed. In order to remain viable, training organisations are increasingly faced with the need to sacrifice social motivations for commercial survival. This situation erodes the scope, at the local level, for services that are relevant to the various needs and circumstances of disadvantaged unemployed people. While the overarching policy discourses maintain that training schemes serve the needs of the most disadvantaged unemployed, policy mechanisms and competitive labour market contexts undermine such objectives. Not only are the most disadvantaged unemployed people frequently unable to access services claiming to be for their benefit, they are by definition less likely to succeed in the context of competitive labour markets and individualised society.

Australian government Mutual Obligations welfare policies, key features of contemporary Australian welfare reforms are the focus of this study. The subjectivities of poor and working class young women and girls and the subject positions made available to them through Mutual Obligations policies are focal points. A key concern is, 'How do Mutual Obligations policies, their texts, discourses and implementation strategies construct the subjectivities of Australian poor and working class young women and girls?' This study asks what subject positions are made available by the policy, how policy discourses are taken up and enacted by policy subjects, and enquires after the lived effects of government policies. / thesis (PhD)--University of South Australia, 2004.

Both economic and psychological research provides strong evidence that unemployment adversely affects a person's mental, emotional, and physical wellbeing, which in turn may impair his/her ability to regain employment. Studies also suggest a person's "psychological capital" (personality traits that influence the productivity of labour) may mediate (1) the impact of unemployment on wellbeing and facilitate re-employment. While the effects of unemployment have been well documented, the simultaneous relationship between wellbeing and labour market status and the influencing role of psychological capital have received much less attention, requiring further investigation. There is still concern in the literature that "the exact nature of the interrelationships between labour market experience and mental health remains unclear and complicated by questions over the direction of causality and heterogeneous impacts across individuals." (Dockery, 2006, p. 2) The purpose of this research is to explore the interrelationship between labour market status, wellbeing, and psychological capital in more detail. The thesis combines key concepts from various economic and psychological theories, each partially describing how labour market status, wellbeing, and psychological capital interact with each other. The validity of the integrated model is then tested by estimating structural equations for labour market status and wellbeing using cross-sectional and longitudinal data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey. The HILDA Survey is a broad social and economic survey that focuses on family and household formation, income and work. The survey contains economic, psychological, and demographic data with sound psychometric qualities for a large sample of working aged Australians that makes it well suited to this type of analysis. As well as the regression analyses, the results of a case study conducted with a group of jobseekers at an employment agency are also reported. The study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of personal development training for the unemployed (designed to improve psychological capital), and its subsequent influence on their ability to regain employment. While the research was halted before completion, some valuable insights were gleamed from the study, and these warrant discussion. Findings of the research indicate a simultaneous relationship exists between labour market status and wellbeing. Individuals with healthier wellbeing are more likely to be employed, and employment contributes to healthier wellbeing. The results also indicate psychological capital is an important variable influencing wellbeing, partially mediating the impact of unemployment on wellbeing. Employed individuals have significantly higher psychological capital than those who are unemployed or not in the labour force, or those who transition in and out of employment. Psychological capital appears to be a relatively stable, but somewhat malleable, personality construct that does not vary greatly for individuals experiencing changes in labour market status (LMS). People who develop poor psychological capital during youth may therefore be predisposed to a higher risk of being unemployed when they enter the labour market. The results suggest programs/policies that foster healthier wellbeing and psychological capital during youth, or repair damaged psychological capital once in the labour market, could help lower unemployment or the duration of unemployment. Recent Australian government policy initiatives designed to improve labour force participation and productivity by enhancing human capital are likely to be more effective if they also target psychological capital. The research also highlights shortcomings in mainstream economic theory, which are discussed along with the weaknesses of the study, and opportunities for further research. (1) A mediator effect (or indirect effect) involves one or more "intervening variables" transmitting some or all of the causal effects of prior variables (e.g. unemployment) onto subsequent variables (e.g. wellbeing). See: Byrne, 2001).

In this study the relationship between young people's job seeking behaviour, self-esteem and their esteem needs was investigated. Young unemployed job seekers attended a four day personal development workshop (known as Positive Choices). The design of the study was a pretest-posttest control-group design. All participants completed a four part questionnaire, including a demographic data sheet, job seeking behaviour scale, (revised from Feather & Rowley, 1987 job search scale) esteem needs questionnaire and the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory. The results showed self esteem scores increased for the young job seekers who participated in the Positive Choices Intervention. A negative correlation was reported between self-esteem scores and job seeking behaviour for all participants. In addition the job seeking behaviour scores increased for the young job seekers after their participation in the Positive Choices Intervention. In terms of esteem needs, no differences were reported between esteem needs for the participant and control groups indicating that the importance of esteem needs remained unchanged. Furthermore, negative correlations were found between the length of time the young job seeker had been unemployed and their self-esteem scores, as well as between the job seeker's educational attainment and self esteem scores. The results suggests that changes in job seeking behaviour is related to changes in the young job seekers' self esteem. Suggestions for future research is discussed. Implications on counselling and a model for working with young job seekers is offered.

失業問題是現代化國家共同面臨之問題，一個國家發生失業會降低國民的所得水準，影響國內的經濟發展，對社會、政治都會發生很大的衝擊，所以各國政府均很重視失業問題，並利用各種方法來降低失業率，以保障國民的就業安全。失業保險制度是解決失業衝擊的一個方法，在歐美各國的推行已超過五十年，它是利用保險制度的方式以集合眾人之力量共同承擔失業風險，以減緩失業對個人的損害，並協助失業者迅述找到工作，在積極上具有促進就業的功能，消極上維持失業者所得。我國以往失業率很低，故一直未開辦失業保險，有鑑於隨經濟快述發展工商業社會的普及，傳統社會瓦解，面臨失業問題的可能性大增，故我們必須正視這個問題，積極尋求解決之道，且政府部門亦已展開失業保險制度的研議工作。本文的目的乃是從經濟面的角度來看如何規劃適合我國的失業保險制，並從失業保險的意義及主要國家的失業保險制度中分析比較，作為我國失業保險規劃的參考。

This thesis offers an analysis of the reporting on unemployment, social welfare and the environment in the quality press in Australia, Belgium, France and the United Kingdom. The findings of this research are based on news about these issues provided in a sample of two constructed weeks in 1998. The quality papers chosen for analysis are: The Age and The Australian (Australia), De Standaard and Le Soir (Belgium), Le Figaro and Le Monde (France), The Guardian and The Times (England). This thesis starts by examining the history and the principles governing the press in the countries analysed, underlining the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and the Continental press, mainly in terms of relations between the press and the State. It questions the importance attributed to freedom of expression in a climate where the concept is still analysed in terms of freedom from government intervention, while the role played by business is generally accepted as unavoidable. This research found that quality newspapers overall present social issues as primarily economic issues, often neglecting their more social aspects. The world promoted is one which is best run by business, while the role of governments as possible managers of the environment and unemployment, and to some extent social welfare, is largely dismissed. The press analysed does this with varying degrees, depending on general attitudes held within countries and on the 'culture' of each newspaper. This research clearly shows the existence of particular newspaper 'cultures'. Each newspaper has its own priorities and news is generally framed according to those priorities. Generally speaking, the emphasis placed by journalists on certain aspects of news is in line with the 'culture' of the newspaper they are working for. The choice of sources of information used to provide news also fits within existing newspapers' 'cultures'. The dominant economic emphasis put on information is systematically endorsed by Le Figaro, The Australian, The Times and De Standaard. Only Le Monde and The Guardian, Le Soir and The Age at times offer alternative views, while endorsing the dominant economic frame. Le Monde and The Guardian, which are also the only two newspapers of the sample that are not part of a big media consortium, regularly stress the social aspect of unemployment and social welfare. These are also the only two newspapers which consider the environment as a long-term quality of life issue, reflecting that it is more than just an economic issue. Le Soir and The Age, which are the two newspapers in our sample with a more local emphasis, also defend the local environment against larger economic interests, and explore local social problems related to unemployment and poverty. In the case of The Age, this fits into a frame very common in the Australian press: that of an uncaring government. Australian papers are very critical and even cynical towards government and politicians. This cynicism is not found in the European papers. The findings of this research are based upon an analysis of the sources of information used by the newspapers, as well as upon an analysis of the frames adopted. This research has put a particular emphasis on sources of information, seen here as the promoters of news frames. General professional practices, together with the 'cultures' held by particular newspapers, account for the lack of representation of private citizens and lobby groups challenging economic interests. In turn their lack of representation can be held responsible for the small amount of information conflicting with dominant framing and dominant themes provided in the news.

<p> </p><p>The aim with this essay is to examine the individual's expectations in the meeting with a job coach. It has become all more common with job coaches, in order to meet the unemployment in the society. The survey builds on a quantitative method, where 29 individuals who are linked to a changeover-program towards new jobs, have replied to a questionnaire. The survey shows that the participants have expectations on the coach as a supporting function. There is also a trust to that the contact with a coach will lead to new employment. In conclusion, there is among some of the participants a view about that there is someone else than themselves that has a responsibility in order to reach employment.</p><p> </p>