The aim of the study at hand is to generate knowledge about what pupils aged nine to ten years old need to discern in order to develop the ability to write stories with a well-developed, exciting and coherent plot, and how teaching can make it possible for the pupils to develop this ability. The theoretical framework has been Variation Theory. It is a theory of learning that focuses on how discernment of aspects affects the way we perceive our world and how variation can be used to promote learning. A basic assumption is that we learn by seeing differences, not by seeing sameness. Learning Study was used to answer the research questions. It is an interventionist approach, where the focus is on an object of learning, in this case the ability to write stories with a well-developed, exciting and coherent plot. In the research process the aim was to find out which aspects were critical for the pupils to discern in order to develop the ability, and how these could be made visible in the teaching. Together with a group of teachers, lessons were planned, implemented, evaluated and refined in an iterative process. Interview data, pupils’ texts written before and after the lessons and video recordings from the lessons were the basis of the analysis. It was found that in order for these learners to handle the object of learning, they needed to discern eight critical aspects that can be related to two different areas: (a) discerning the perspective of a reader and (b) seeing that a plot consists of several problems and solutions. The aspects were made discernible by using contrast as a pedagogical tool. The result of the study contributes to previous research by identifying and specifying what the pupils need to discern, what it means in a classroom setting and how it can be taught in a powerful way.

This study focuses on teachers' experiences of participating in collaborative professional development. Learning study is a systematic model where teachers collaborate around specific content areas (an object of learning) trying to find out what the students need to discern, and how that can be taught, using variation theory as a framework for lesson design and analysis.  The aim of the study is to find out what the perceived consequences are for teachers and their teaching when participating in a learning study. It also examines how the teachers perceive the collaborative work in a learning study. The study draws on data collected through qualitative semi-structured interviews with ten teachers with experience of participating in learning studies. The interviews were coded and categorized using a qualitative content analysis approach. The results indicate that the collaborative work in a learning study is perceived as both collaborative and collective learning. Learning study is also seen as a systematic model which enables collective and individual reflection on teaching.  Furthermore, the consequences of participation in learning study are perceived in terms of instructional changes, where teachers take greater use of students understanding as they plan and implement teaching and focus on the content. Variation theory emerges as an important tool in this change. The theory also seems to contribute to reflection and knowledge about teaching and students learning.

This thesis reports results from a study that focuses on teachers’ professional development during an in-service training period. The aim is to analyse and describe how the teachers talk about and handle lesson content. The first question concerns changes in relation to a specific object of learning. The second question concerns how they relate to a theoretical framework and the third question concerns differences in the students’ learning outcome and if it can be understood in relation to the teachers’ development. The variation theory is the theoretical framework that is used for lesson planning as well as when analysing results. The basis of the study is that learning always is the learning of something and that the teachers’ activity as well as the students’ activity constitutes the space of variation that decides what is possible to learn concerning a delimited object of learning, i.e. the enacted object of learning. The object of learning is seen as a capability and it can be defined by its critical features. The constitution of the meaning aimed for the critical features of the object must be discerned. The intentional object of learning describes the teachers’ intention with the lesson, and the lived object of learning is what the students really discerned. The theoretical assumption is that learning always assumes an experienced variation where learning is seen as a change in the learners’ possibility to experience the world in a certain way. You have to have experienced a phenomenon’s variation to understand its meaning, i.e. what we experience is how something differs from something else. The method is Learning study and it can be described as a hybrid of the Japanese Lesson study and Design experiment. A Learning study is theoretically grounded and the primary focus is on an object of learning. The learning study group consisted of three teachers and most often two researchers. Each member had equal status in the group. The object of learning seen from the teachers’ perspective was the variation theory that was gradually introduced by the researchers. The empirical material was generated from audio-taped discussions and from videotaped lessons. The findings should be seen as a contribution to the discussion about teachers’ professional development. The teachers participated in a collective construction of pro-fessional knowledge and it can be stated that the teachers had no problem changing their discussions to focus on a specific object of learning when the theoretical framework was used in relation to their own practices. Another finding is that the change in how the teachers handled the object of learning influenced the students’ learning in a positive way although the results were subtle.

Reporting the findings from a phenomenographic study of students' experiences of web-based information searching, this thesis describes how the identified four conceptions, and their structures of awareness, might influence future information literacy curriculum design and web based resources for academics, librarians, and students. Alongside the reported study in this thesis, the first electronic outcome space is also outlined and presented. This electronic outcome space is an enhancement to ways of presenting phenomenographic study findings. Using a phenomenographic approach, the project aimed to uncover variation in students' experiences of web-based information searching. Data gathering during 2000 - 2003 involved investigations of student diary work, video-filmed searching using a think-aloud protocol, and a series of interviews conducted over several semesters. Incorporating first year, third year, and postgraduate student perspectives, the participants, who were from the Queensland University of Technology, came from six of the eight university faculties. Different cultures, ages and genders were represented. During the interviews the students were asked to describe a recent search experience, and to describe how they learn to search for information using various web-based tools. Careful attention was paid during interviews to asking students to explain their interpretation of key concepts in the subject area. Analysis involved an iterative process of seeking meaning and structure. Amongst the group of students interviewed, four categories of explicit variation were discovered and these have been described drawing largely from the words of the participants. Two categories of implicit variation are also proposed. Each explicit category is presented in terms of referential and structural components constituted in terms of the critical dimensions of variation including focal elements, approaches to learning, and reflective practice. The possibility of implicit categories is proposed based on the findings and on the levels of IT skill amongst participants. The study also sought to explore how this type of research into student learning can influence both the design of learning experiences and academic development resources, particularly in relation to teaching and learning information searching as part of the information literacy agenda. Using the categories of description, which showed the variations in student's web-based information searching experiences, it is hoped that the further research outlined will enlighten attempts to design existing assessment to work more effectively, to bring about desired changes in students' experiences of information searching behaviour. The structure of awareness section of each category has revealed the elements that need to be attended to in re-designing assessment. It is hoped that in modifying assignments it will enable the simultaneous attention of students to the already identified relevant dimensions of the information searching experience.

In this study a phenomenographic theoretical perspective is taken as departure for research on manifested critical thinking in civics among Swedish ninth-grade compulsory school students. According to the phenomenographic perspective students’ manifestations of critical thinking are linked to the way of experiencing the phenomena inducing a manifestation of critical thinking. Thus differences between students’ manifestations of critical thinking are linked to differences in the way of experiencing the phenomena inducing a manifestation of critical thinking. The empirical investigation in this study revolves around how 19 ninth-grade students experience four different tasks designed to induce manifestations of critical thinking. In broad terms the main aim of the study is to describe the students’ different ways of experiencing each specific task and furthermore, to link each specific way of experiencing a specific task to a specific type of manifested critical thinking in relation to that task. A more overarching aim is to offer and test the phenomenographic theoretical perspective as a way of conducting research on manifested critical thinking. The empirical results show how the way of experiencing a specific task plays a decisive roll for the type of manifested critical thinking, made possible in relation to the specific task. A more complex way of experiencing the task can be linked to a more complex manifestation of critical thinking in relation to the task. A less complex way of experiencing the task can be linked to a less complex manifestation of critical thinking in relation to the task. The study also suggests how these empirical results can be used in a pedagogical situation in order to enhance students manifested critical thinking in civics. Concerning the more overarching aim the study strongly points to a further use of the phenomenographic perspective when conducting research on students manifested critical thinking.

Esta pesquisa tratará de examinar o fenômeno de Hipocorização, processo de formação de hipocorísticos, em dados coletados sob perspectiva da Teoria da Variação Linguística, modelo sociolinguístico Laboviana. Hipocorístico, neste trabalho, será entendido como um nome próprio de pessoa que é utilizado de forma reduzida em termos de sílabas e/ou sons. Por exemplo, o nome ‘Isabel’, que pode ser dito como ‘Isa’ ou ‘Bel’, permite dois hipocorísticos. O objetivo primordial desta dissertação é realizar um estudo sobre a Hipocorização de nomes próprios de pessoas sob a perspectiva variacionista e examinar se o fenômeno consiste em uma regra variável. Temos as seguintes hipóteses: o processo de Hipocorização mais utilizado é o padrão que realiza a permanência do início da palavra; a sílaba tônica da palavra permanece no hipocorístico; falantes do sexo feminino utilizam mais a forma reduzida dos nomes próprios; a idade dos falantes não é um fator relevante para a aplicação dos hipocorísticos. Para alcançarmos nosso objetivo principal e para confirmarmos, ou não, nossas hipóteses, utilizaremos o pacote computacional Varbrul – versão Goldvarb e um corpus formado a partir de material coletado com 160 estudantes, de idades entre dez (10) a dezessete (17) anos, de uma escola privada confessional de classe média, na cidade de Porto Alegre. Nossa variável dependente é a aplicação ou não de formas reduzidas de nomes próprios de pessoas, denominadas como Hipocorístico. / This research will try to examine the Hypocorization phenomenon, a process of formation of hypocoristics, with data collected under the Linguistic Variation Theory perspective, from a Laboviana sociolinguistic model. Hypocoristic, in this work, is understood as a person’s proper name which is used in a reduced form both syllables and/or sounds. For example, the name “Isabel”, allows two hypocoristics, it can be said either “Isa” or “Bel”. The primordial objective of this master thesis is to carry through a study on the Hypocorization of people’s proper names under the variationist perspective and to examine if the phenomenon consists of a changeable rule. We have the following hypotheses: the most used Hypocorization process is the type that chooses the beginning of the word; the tonic syllable of the word remains in the hypocoristic. Reduced forms of proper names are more used by female speakers. The age of the speakers is not a relevant factor for the application of the hypocoristic. To reach our principal objective and to confirm, or not, our hypotheses, will be used the Varbrul software – GoldVarb version and a corpus formed with the material collected from 160 students, aged from ten (10) to seventeen (17) years, coming from a middle class confessional private school of the city of Porto Alegre. Our dependent variable is the application or not of the reduced forms of people’s proper names, denominate as Hypocoristic.

Este trabalho analisa as formas de realização da lateral pós-vocálica na cidade de Lages/ SC sob a luz da Teoria Variacionista, visto que, no português brasileiro, a lateral /l/, quando em posição final de sílaba, é realizada de forma variável, podendo ser realizada como [l] alveolar, [t] velar, semivogal [w], apagamento [Ø] ou rotacismo [r]. De acordo com a literatura, essa variação pode ocorrer tanto em função de condicionantes sociais quanto lingüísticos. Devido aos resultados obtidos na rodada do programa, optamos por uma análise binária para a vocalização da lateral contra essas demais formas de realização do fonema /l/, todavia fazemos comentários que julgamos pertinentes com relação a todas elas. A realização de /l/ pós-vocálico como [t] ou [w] pode ser comprovada através de trabalhos como os de Lopez (1979), Cagliari (1981), Sêcco (1977), Quednau (1993), Tasca (1999) e Espiga (2001). Essas variantes, na Fonologia Tradicional, são consideradas livres ou de aplicação imprevisível, visto que são atribuídas a um indivíduo ou a um grupo social ou regional. Porém, de acordo com a proposta de Labov (1966, 1969, 1972), essa variação livre não é tão imprevisível quanto aparenta ser. Os fatores lingüísticos e sociais podem funcionar como condicionadores, favorecendo ou não o uso dessas formas variantes. Nossa análise dos dados é comparada e contrastada com os resultados obtidos em estudos anteriores e demonstra que os fatores sociais idade, escolaridade e sexo são relevantes à aplicação de uma regra variável assim como os fatores lingüísticos acento, fronteira de morfema e contexto fonológico precedente. Por fim, fazemos um estudo sobre os fatores extralingüísticos favorecedores das diversas formas de realização da lateral, baseado nos dados fornecidos por cada um dos informantes dessa pesquisa. / This paper aims to analyze the output forms of the post-vocalic lateral in the community of Lages/SC under the Variation Theory, since, in Brazilian Portuguese, the lateral /l/, when in the final position of a syllable, is performed in a variable manner, ranging from [l] alveolar, [t] velar, semivowel [w], deletion [Ø] to rhotacism [r]. According to literature, such variation may happen due to either social or linguistic factors. Due to the results obtained after running the software, we chose a binary analysis for the vocalization of the lateral against those other forms of realization of the phoneme /l/, however comments that we deem appropriate regarding all of them are made. The output of post-vocalic /l/ as [:] or [w] becomes evident in the works of Lopez (1979), Cagliari (1981), Sêcco (1977), Quednau (1993), Tasca (1999), and Espiga (2001). Those variants, in the Traditional Phonology, are considered free or of unexpected application, as they are regarded to an individual or to a social or regional group. However, according to Labov (1966, 1969, 1972), such free variation is not as unexpected as it seems to be. The linguistic and social factors may act as conditioners, so that they may or may not favor the use of those variant forms. The analysis of our data will be compared and contrasted with the results achieved in previous studies and will show that social factors such as age, educational background and sex are relevant to the application of a variable rule as well as the linguistic factors stress, morpheme border and precedent phonological context. To end, we analyze the social factors that favor the many output forms of /l/, based on data supplied by each of the interviewees used in this research.

Este trabalho analisa as formas de realização da lateral pós-vocálica na cidade de Lages/ SC sob a luz da Teoria Variacionista, visto que, no português brasileiro, a lateral /l/, quando em posição final de sílaba, é realizada de forma variável, podendo ser realizada como [l] alveolar, [t] velar, semivogal [w], apagamento [Ø] ou rotacismo [r]. De acordo com a literatura, essa variação pode ocorrer tanto em função de condicionantes sociais quanto lingüísticos. Devido aos resultados obtidos na rodada do programa, optamos por uma análise binária para a vocalização da lateral contra essas demais formas de realização do fonema /l/, todavia fazemos comentários que julgamos pertinentes com relação a todas elas. A realização de /l/ pós-vocálico como [t] ou [w] pode ser comprovada através de trabalhos como os de Lopez (1979), Cagliari (1981), Sêcco (1977), Quednau (1993), Tasca (1999) e Espiga (2001). Essas variantes, na Fonologia Tradicional, são consideradas livres ou de aplicação imprevisível, visto que são atribuídas a um indivíduo ou a um grupo social ou regional. Porém, de acordo com a proposta de Labov (1966, 1969, 1972), essa variação livre não é tão imprevisível quanto aparenta ser. Os fatores lingüísticos e sociais podem funcionar como condicionadores, favorecendo ou não o uso dessas formas variantes. Nossa análise dos dados é comparada e contrastada com os resultados obtidos em estudos anteriores e demonstra que os fatores sociais idade, escolaridade e sexo são relevantes à aplicação de uma regra variável assim como os fatores lingüísticos acento, fronteira de morfema e contexto fonológico precedente. Por fim, fazemos um estudo sobre os fatores extralingüísticos favorecedores das diversas formas de realização da lateral, baseado nos dados fornecidos por cada um dos informantes dessa pesquisa. / This paper aims to analyze the output forms of the post-vocalic lateral in the community of Lages/SC under the Variation Theory, since, in Brazilian Portuguese, the lateral /l/, when in the final position of a syllable, is performed in a variable manner, ranging from [l] alveolar, [t] velar, semivowel [w], deletion [Ø] to rhotacism [r]. According to literature, such variation may happen due to either social or linguistic factors. Due to the results obtained after running the software, we chose a binary analysis for the vocalization of the lateral against those other forms of realization of the phoneme /l/, however comments that we deem appropriate regarding all of them are made. The output of post-vocalic /l/ as [:] or [w] becomes evident in the works of Lopez (1979), Cagliari (1981), Sêcco (1977), Quednau (1993), Tasca (1999), and Espiga (2001). Those variants, in the Traditional Phonology, are considered free or of unexpected application, as they are regarded to an individual or to a social or regional group. However, according to Labov (1966, 1969, 1972), such free variation is not as unexpected as it seems to be. The linguistic and social factors may act as conditioners, so that they may or may not favor the use of those variant forms. The analysis of our data will be compared and contrasted with the results achieved in previous studies and will show that social factors such as age, educational background and sex are relevant to the application of a variable rule as well as the linguistic factors stress, morpheme border and precedent phonological context. To end, we analyze the social factors that favor the many output forms of /l/, based on data supplied by each of the interviewees used in this research.

Esta pesquisa tratará de examinar o fenômeno de Hipocorização, processo de formação de hipocorísticos, em dados coletados sob perspectiva da Teoria da Variação Linguística, modelo sociolinguístico Laboviana. Hipocorístico, neste trabalho, será entendido como um nome próprio de pessoa que é utilizado de forma reduzida em termos de sílabas e/ou sons. Por exemplo, o nome ‘Isabel’, que pode ser dito como ‘Isa’ ou ‘Bel’, permite dois hipocorísticos. O objetivo primordial desta dissertação é realizar um estudo sobre a Hipocorização de nomes próprios de pessoas sob a perspectiva variacionista e examinar se o fenômeno consiste em uma regra variável. Temos as seguintes hipóteses: o processo de Hipocorização mais utilizado é o padrão que realiza a permanência do início da palavra; a sílaba tônica da palavra permanece no hipocorístico; falantes do sexo feminino utilizam mais a forma reduzida dos nomes próprios; a idade dos falantes não é um fator relevante para a aplicação dos hipocorísticos. Para alcançarmos nosso objetivo principal e para confirmarmos, ou não, nossas hipóteses, utilizaremos o pacote computacional Varbrul – versão Goldvarb e um corpus formado a partir de material coletado com 160 estudantes, de idades entre dez (10) a dezessete (17) anos, de uma escola privada confessional de classe média, na cidade de Porto Alegre. Nossa variável dependente é a aplicação ou não de formas reduzidas de nomes próprios de pessoas, denominadas como Hipocorístico. / This research will try to examine the Hypocorization phenomenon, a process of formation of hypocoristics, with data collected under the Linguistic Variation Theory perspective, from a Laboviana sociolinguistic model. Hypocoristic, in this work, is understood as a person’s proper name which is used in a reduced form both syllables and/or sounds. For example, the name “Isabel”, allows two hypocoristics, it can be said either “Isa” or “Bel”. The primordial objective of this master thesis is to carry through a study on the Hypocorization of people’s proper names under the variationist perspective and to examine if the phenomenon consists of a changeable rule. We have the following hypotheses: the most used Hypocorization process is the type that chooses the beginning of the word; the tonic syllable of the word remains in the hypocoristic. Reduced forms of proper names are more used by female speakers. The age of the speakers is not a relevant factor for the application of the hypocoristic. To reach our principal objective and to confirm, or not, our hypotheses, will be used the Varbrul software – GoldVarb version and a corpus formed with the material collected from 160 students, aged from ten (10) to seventeen (17) years, coming from a middle class confessional private school of the city of Porto Alegre. Our dependent variable is the application or not of the reduced forms of people’s proper names, denominate as Hypocoristic.

Esta pesquisa tratará de examinar o fenômeno de Hipocorização, processo de formação de hipocorísticos, em dados coletados sob perspectiva da Teoria da Variação Linguística, modelo sociolinguístico Laboviana. Hipocorístico, neste trabalho, será entendido como um nome próprio de pessoa que é utilizado de forma reduzida em termos de sílabas e/ou sons. Por exemplo, o nome ‘Isabel’, que pode ser dito como ‘Isa’ ou ‘Bel’, permite dois hipocorísticos. O objetivo primordial desta dissertação é realizar um estudo sobre a Hipocorização de nomes próprios de pessoas sob a perspectiva variacionista e examinar se o fenômeno consiste em uma regra variável. Temos as seguintes hipóteses: o processo de Hipocorização mais utilizado é o padrão que realiza a permanência do início da palavra; a sílaba tônica da palavra permanece no hipocorístico; falantes do sexo feminino utilizam mais a forma reduzida dos nomes próprios; a idade dos falantes não é um fator relevante para a aplicação dos hipocorísticos. Para alcançarmos nosso objetivo principal e para confirmarmos, ou não, nossas hipóteses, utilizaremos o pacote computacional Varbrul – versão Goldvarb e um corpus formado a partir de material coletado com 160 estudantes, de idades entre dez (10) a dezessete (17) anos, de uma escola privada confessional de classe média, na cidade de Porto Alegre. Nossa variável dependente é a aplicação ou não de formas reduzidas de nomes próprios de pessoas, denominadas como Hipocorístico. / This research will try to examine the Hypocorization phenomenon, a process of formation of hypocoristics, with data collected under the Linguistic Variation Theory perspective, from a Laboviana sociolinguistic model. Hypocoristic, in this work, is understood as a person’s proper name which is used in a reduced form both syllables and/or sounds. For example, the name “Isabel”, allows two hypocoristics, it can be said either “Isa” or “Bel”. The primordial objective of this master thesis is to carry through a study on the Hypocorization of people’s proper names under the variationist perspective and to examine if the phenomenon consists of a changeable rule. We have the following hypotheses: the most used Hypocorization process is the type that chooses the beginning of the word; the tonic syllable of the word remains in the hypocoristic. Reduced forms of proper names are more used by female speakers. The age of the speakers is not a relevant factor for the application of the hypocoristic. To reach our principal objective and to confirm, or not, our hypotheses, will be used the Varbrul software – GoldVarb version and a corpus formed with the material collected from 160 students, aged from ten (10) to seventeen (17) years, coming from a middle class confessional private school of the city of Porto Alegre. Our dependent variable is the application or not of the reduced forms of people’s proper names, denominate as Hypocoristic.