Weightlifting and powerlifting are strength and power sports requiring athletes to participate in precompetition weigh-ins. Many athletes attempt to gain a competitive edge over smaller competitors by reducing body mass. Although these methods may seem advantageous, there are many negative outcomes that outweigh potential positive performance effects. Manipulating body mass can be performed effectively with minimal side effects; however, weightlifters and powerlifters participating in 2-hour weigh-ins should not cut weight at the expense of optimizing strength and power adaptations.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The objective of this work was to evaluate the reproductive performance of beef heifers in the first and second reproductive year. Two hundred twenty- seven heifers mated for the first time at 24 months old, which reached the minimum live weight of 50% of the adult weight, and were mated from 2003 to 2012 and raised at the Beef Cattle Laboratory (LBC) of the Animal Science Department of Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM) were studied. In chapter 1, each variable was evaluated through logistic regression, by the LOGISTIC procedure available at SAS. The explanation for the pregnancy rate (58.1%) in the first reproductive year was the intensity of the weight gain from 7 to 18 months old and from 18 to 24 months old. In the second reproductive year, the pregnancy rate of the primiparae (49.5%) was explained by the variation on the weight of the heifers from the age of 24 months old to the birth; by the Julian date of birth; by the average daily gain from the weaning to the end of the breeding season and by the adjusted weight of the calf at weaning (75 days). In chapter 2, the heifers were grouped in three classes of live weight at 24 months old, being them: between 50 and 59.9% of adult weight (55%); from 60 to 69.9% of adult weight (65%) and between 70 and 80% of adult weight (75%). The performance of the heifers was monitored from 7 months old until the end of the second breeding. The pregnancy rate in the first reproductive year was 38.0%; 56.4% and 69.0% for the heifers mated with the weight range of 55% 65% and 75%, respectively. The weight difference between 24 months old and the birth was superior (P<0.05) on the classes of 55% (37.8 kg) and 65% (24.5 kg) compared to the class of 75% (-7.9 kg). The pregnancy repetition rate did not suffer effect of the weight class at the first mating (P>0.05) with values of 41.6%; 42.1% and 50.4%. When the mating weight of the heifers is not a limiting factor, the weight gain intensity between 7 and 24 months old is the main factor that influences on the pregnancy rates. In the second reproductive year, higher weight increments along the period of mating and gestation, as well as the reduction of the birth date and an increase on the weight gain intensity in post weaning are necessary in order to increase the pregnancy repetition indexes. The increase of weight before the mating of the heifers at two years old influences on the reproductive performance at the first breeding; promotes higher weight at birth, weaning and at the end of the second breeding in relation to the heifers mated between 50% and 60% of the adult weight, however it results in a higher assistance in the second reproductive year due to the higher corporal development. / Objetivou-se avaliar o desempenho reprodutivo de novilhas de corte no primeiro e segundo ano reprodutivo. Para isso, foram estudadas 227 novilhas acasaladas pela primeira vez aos 24 meses de idade, que atingiram peso vivo mínimo de 50% do peso adulto e acasaladas entre os anos de 2003 a 2012, criadas no Laboratório de Bovinocultura de Corte (LBC) do Departamento de Zootecnia da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM). No capítulo 1, cada variável foi avaliada através de regressão logística, pelo procedimento LOGISTIC, disponível no SAS. A explicação para a taxa de prenhez (58,1%) no primeiro ano reprodutivo foi a intensidade de ganho de peso dos 7 aos 18 meses de idade e dos 18 aos 24 meses de idade. No segundo ano reprodutivo, a taxa de prenhez das primíparas (49,5%) foi explicada pela variação de peso das novilhas entre os 24 meses de idade e o parto; pela data juliana de parto; pelo ganho médio diário entre o desmame e o final de monta e pelo peso ajustado do bezerro ao desmame (75 dias). No capítulo 2, as novilhas foram agrupadas em três classes de peso vivo aos 24 meses de idade, sendo eles: entre 50 a 59,9% do peso adulto (55%); de 60 a 69,9% do peso adulto (65%) e entre 70 a 80% do peso adulto (75%). Foi monitorado o desempenho das novilhas dos 7 meses de idade até o final da segunda monta. A taxa de prenhez no primeiro ano reprodutivo foi de 38,0%; 56,4% e 69,0% para às acasaladas com faixa de peso de 55%, 65% e 75%; respectivamente. A diferença de peso entre os 24 meses de idade e o parto foi superior (P<0,05) nas de classe 55% (37,8 kg) e 65% (24,5 kg) frente às de 75% (-7,9 kg). A taxa de repetição de prenhez não sofreu efeito da classe de peso ao primeiro acasalamento (P>0,05) com valores de 41,6%; 42,1% e 50,4%. Quando o peso ao acasalamento de novilhas não é um fator limitante a intensidade de ganho de peso entre os 7 aos 24 meses de idade é o principal fator que influência a taxa de prenhez. No segundo ano reprodutivo, maiores incrementos de peso ao longo do período de acasalamento e gestação, assim como redução na data de parto e aumento na intensidade de ganho de peso no pós desmame são necessários para aumento nos índices de repetição de prenhez. A elevação do peso antes do acasalamento de novilhas aos dois anos de idade interfere no desempenho reprodutivo na primeira monta; promove maior peso ao parto, desmame e final da segunda monta em relação às acasaladas entre 50 a 60% do peso adulto, no entanto resulta em maiores cuidados no segundo ano reprodutivo tendo em vista o maior desenvolvimento corporal.

Bakgrund Viktklassidrotter och deras kulturella kontext har genom tidigare forskning påvisats utgöra en risk för ätstörda beteenden, något som beskrivits kunna förorsakas av idrottsliga villkor. Styrkelyft och tyngdlyftning är viktklassidrotter där viktminskningsstrategier nyttjas för en ökad konkurrenskraftighet. Coacher besitter en nyckelroll i att uppmärksamma och motverka ätstörda beteenden hos sina atleter, men det saknas ett djupgående perspektiv avseende hur de förhåller sig till viktminskningsregimernas påverkan på kvinnliga atleter. Syfte Studien avser att utforska coachers erfarenheter av och förhållningssätt till etablerade viktminskningsregimer och viktkontroll inom kraftsporten. Fokus ligger på coachers erfarenheter av att ha tränat damatleter inom de, historiskt sett, mansdominerade kraftsporterna tyngdlyftning och styrkelyft. Metod Semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes med nio kraftsportscoacher. Intervjuerna spelades in, transkriberades ordagrant och analyserades med kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat Analysen resulterade i fem kategorier: - Viktminskningskulturen är ett normaliserat fenomen inom kraftsporten, - Kraftsportens villkor kräver användandet av viktminskningsmetoder, - Risk för att ätstörda beteenden utvecklas, maskeras och/eller undgår ifrågasättande, - Identitet och samhällets kroppsideal – bromsklossar för idrottslig utveckling samt - Coacherna saknar stöd och riktlinjer – lämnas ensamma i ansvarsfrågan. Fokus på vikt och viktminskning ansågs allmänt vedertaget inom kraftsporten, vilket medförde att ätstörda beteenden kunde maskeras och förbises. Konkurrenskraftighet beskrevs ligga till grund för viktminskningsstrategierna, berättigat både inom idrotten och utanför, där samhällets utseendenormer därtill försvårade idrottslig utveckling. Coacherna eftersökte interventioner för ökad kunskap i ämnet samt åtgärdsplaner för agerande när en atlet behöver professionellt stöd. Slutsats Kraftsportsatleter existerar i en miljö som ökar risken för dysfunktionella ät- och viktkontrollerande beteenden, och bedöms vara farlig för individer med sårbarhet för att utveckla ätstörda beteenden och ätstörningar. Interventioner behövs om inte kraftsporten ska riskera att bli en miljö där ätstörningar tillåts florera fritt. / Background Previous research has found weight-class athletes to be at risk of developing disordered eating, something that could be induced by the demands of the sport. Powerlifting and weightlifting are examples of weight-class sports where weight loss strategies are utilized for increased competitiveness. Coaches have a key role in recognizing and counteract disordered eating behaviors in their athletes, but an in-depth perspective on how they address the impact of weight loss strategies in female athletes is lacking. Objective The aim of the study is to explore coaches’ experiences of and approaches to established weight loss regimes and weight control within weightlifting and powerlifting. The focus is on coaches’ experiences of having trained female athletes in the historically male-dominated sports of weightlifting and powerlifting.  Method Semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine coaches. The interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim and analyzed using qualitative content analysis.  Results The analysis resulted in five categories: - Weight loss culture as a normalized phenomenon within the sports, - The conditions of the sports require the use of weight loss methods, - Risk of developing, disguising and/or escape questioning of disordered eating, - Athletic development is held back by identity and society’s body ideals and - Coaches lacking support and guidelines – left alone in the matter of responsibility. The focus on weight and weight loss was considered widely accepted in the sports, which meant that disordered eating could be disguised and overlooked. Competitiveness was described as the basis for the weight loss strategies, justified both within the sport and in society, where society’s body-ideals also interfered with athletic development. The coaches requested interventions for increased knowledge on the subject and action plans for when an athlete needs professional support.  Conclusion Athletes in powerlifting and weightlifting exist within an environment that increases the risk of dysfunctional eating and weight control behaviors and is deemed dangerous for individuals with susceptibility to develop disordered eating behaviors and eating disorders. To avoid a setting where eating disorders flourish freely, interventions will be needed within the sports.

Kroppsuppfattning påverkar vår livskvalitet. Utöver att prestera på tävling behöver tyngdlyftare och styrkelyftare delta på en invägning, där deras kroppsvikt avgör vilken viktklass de tävlar i. Syftet med studien var att undersöka om det fanns ett samband mellan lyftares kroppsuppfattning och upplevelse av att vara aktiv och tävlande inom tyngdlyftning och/eller styrkelyft. Metod: 210 svenska tyngdlyftare och styrkelyftare med tävlingserfarenhet i åldrarna 15–70 år deltog i studien. Deltagarna svarade på en digital enkät som inkluderade ett av författaren nyskapat instrument om förekomst av beteenden och upplevelser av att tävla i en viktklassidrott, samt Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults om kroppsuppfattning. Resultat: Signifikant positiva korrelationer av måttlig styrka påvisades mellan kroppsuppfattning och tävlingsupplevelse, samt mellan kroppsuppfattning och viktupplevelse. Svag positiv korrelation påvisades mellan kroppsuppfattning och invägningsupplevelse. 60 % av studiedeltagarna rapporterade positiv kroppsuppfattning och 40 % rapporterade blandad/splittrad eller negativ kroppsuppfattning. Slutsats: Studiens resultat indikerar att kroppsuppfattning och upplevelse av att tävla, upplevelse av sin kroppsvikt och att tävla i viktklass(er), samt upplevelse av invägning har ett samband. Då 40 % av populationen rapporterade blandad/splittrad eller negativ kroppsuppfattning tyder resultaten på praktiska förbättringsmöjligheter där idrottares kroppsuppfattning kan förbättras. / Body image affects our quality of life. In addition to performing in competition, weightlifters and powerlifters need to participate in a weigh-in, where their body weight determines which weight class they compete in. The purpose of the study was to investigate whether there was a relationship between lifters’ body image and experience of being active and competing in weightlifting and/or powerlifting. Method: 210 Swedish weightlifters and powerlifters with competition experience aged 15–70 years participated in the study. The participants responded to a digital questionnaire that included an instrument newly created by the author on the prevalence of behaviours and experiences of competing in a weight class sport, as well as the Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults. Results: Positive correlations of statistical significance and of moderate strength were found between body image and competition experience, as well as between body image and weight experience. Weak positive correlation was demonstrated between body image and weigh-in experience. 60 % of the participants reported positive body image and 40 % reported mixed/split or negative body image. Conclusion: The results of the study indicate a relationship between body image and experience of competing, experience of one's body weight and competing in weight class(es), as well as experience of weigh-ins. As 40 % of the population reported mixed/split or negative body image, the results indicate practical opportunities where athletes’ body image can be improved.