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abstract: In my dissertation, I develop a theoretical model that explains how leaders' daily work demands and recovery affect their leadership behaviors. In a departure from the trait approach of leadership which suggests that leaders tend to behave in certain ways that are determined by their heritable characteristics such as personality and intelligence (e.g., Bono & Judge, 2002), and from the contingency approach that suggests leaders behave in ways that are most suitable to the situation based on the needs of followers and the demands of their tasks (e.g., House, 1971), this dissertation draws from the transactional theory of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and positions the stressful demands that leaders experience at work as important determinants of their leadership behaviors. Specifically, I propose that leaders' daily challenge demands (e.g., workload, time pressure, responsibilities) are positively related to job engagement whereas their daily hindrance demands (e.g., role ambiguity, office politics, and hassles) are negatively related to engagement. Engagement, in turn, is positively related to transformational and transactional leadership and negatively related to laissez-faire leadership and abusive supervision. Meanwhile, both challenge and hindrance demands are positively related to strain, which is negatively related to transformational and transactional leadership, and is positively related to laissez-faire leadership and abusive supervision. In addition, leaders' daily after-work recovery experience influences the mediating roles of engagement and strain in the relationships between work demands and leadership behaviors. Specifically, daily recovery moderates both the first stage (i.e., the linkages between work demands and engagement and strain) and the second stage (i.e., the linkages between engagement and strain and leadership behaviors) of the mediation. I test this two-level dual-stage moderated mediation model using a two-week experience sampling design. The sample consists of 26 supervisors and 73 employees who directly report to these supervisors from the flood control district of a metropolitan county in the Southwest United States. Results suggest that leaders' daily challenge demands have a positive influence on transformational leadership attributable to engagement, a negative influence on abusive supervision attributable to engagement, and a positive influence on abusive supervision attributable to strain. Leaders' daily hindrance demands, in contrast, have a positive influence on abusive supervision attributable to strain. In addition, leaders' daily recovery moderates the relationship between strain and laissez-faire leadership so that hindrance demands have a positive influence on laissez-faire leadership when the individual is poorly recovered. Leaders' daily recovery also moderates the relationship between strain and abusive supervision so that hindrance demands have a stronger positive influence on abusive supervision through strain when the individual is poorly recovered. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Business Administration 2013

Tidigare forskning har visat att det finns mellanchefer som anser att deras arbetsrelaterade stress är relaterad till krav från både över- och underordnade (Skagert, Dellve, Eklöf, Ljung, Pousette & Ahlborg, 2004). Syftet med den föreliggande studien var att i en offentlig organisation undersöka om mellanchefers upplevda arbetskrav från över- och underordnade har samband med deras upplevda arbetsrelaterade stressnivå. Följande frågeställning formulerades: I vilken grad kan upplevda arbetskrav från överordnade, underordnade, ålder och antal år som mellanchef predicera grad av upplevd arbetsrelaterad stress. Deltagarna i studien var 63 mellanchefer, varav 52 kvinnor och 11 män. Resultatet visade att upplevda arbetskrav från underordnade var den enda oberoende variabeln som statistiskt signifikant predicerade uplevd arbetsrelaterad stress. Antal år som mellanchef hade en negativ statistiskt signifikant korrelation med upplevd arbetsrelaterad stress. Dessa resultat var delvis i linje med presenterad teori och tidigare forskning. / Previous research has shown that middle managers believe that their work-related stress is connected to the demands from both superiors and subordinates (Skagert, Dellve, Eklöf, Heather, Pousette & Ahlborg, 2004). The aim of the present study was to in a public organization investigate whether the middle managers perceived job demands from superiors and subordinates are related to their perceived work-related stress level. The following research question was formulated: To what extent can the perceived job demands from superiors, subordinates, age and number of years as middle manager predict levels of perceived work-related stress. Participants in the study consisted of 63 middle managers (52 women and 11 men). The results showed that perceived job demands from subordinates were the only independent variable that statistically significantly predicted perceived work-related stress. Number of years as middle manager had a negative statistically significant correlation with perceived work-related stress. These results were partially in line with the presented theory and previous research.

Spillover research has shown that workday stress hampers commuting safety, while ego depletion research has demonstrated that prior self-regulation leads to performance decrements in subsequent tasks. This study sought to unite these two lines of research by proposing that ego depletion-induced alterations in attention and motivation are the mechanisms by which workday experiences spill over to the commute and impair driving safety. To examine the daily influences of these within-person processes on driving behavior in the post-work commute, this study adopted a daily survey design, wherein participants took an online survey immediately before and after each post-work commute across one work week. In these daily surveys, fifty-six participants (N = 56; n = 250 day-level observations) reported their workday self-regulatory demands; pre-commute levels of attention, motivation, and affective states; and driving behavior during the commute home. Using multilevel path analysis to isolate within-person effects, the current study found no evidence to suggest that workday self-regulatory demands lowered pre-commute attention and motivation, nor did it detect associations of attention and motivation with post-work aberrant driving. Results indicated that an ego depleted state might impair attention and motivation but not driving safety in the commute. Instead, the results pointed to the person-level factor of trait self-control as potentially having a greater impact on post-work aberrant driving than daily experiences. / M.S. / Research has shown that employees tend to drive more unsafely when commuting home after a stressful workday. However, most of this research has examined what about the person makes them drive more unsafely than someone else, but it is also important to understand what about the workday makes someone drive more unsafely one day than another day. I predicted that a workday containing more self-control demands would make an employee drive more unsafely when commuting home from work because facing more self-control demands would lower the employee’s attention and motivation for driving safely. To test this idea, I gave participants two online surveys per day for five consecutive days, Monday through Friday – one at the end of their workday (asking about their workday demands and current levels of attention and motivation), and one at the end of their commute home (asking about their driving behavior during that post-work commute). The data from my final sample of 56 participants (N = 56; n = 250 study days) showed no evidence to support my hypotheses: the amount of workday self-control demands was not found to associate with attention and motivation before driving home, and attention and motivation before driving home were not found to relate to driving safety during that commute home. On the other hand, I did find that a person’s general ability to maintain self-control was associated with their driving safety during the commute home (regardless of workday self-control demands). These results suggest that a person’s character might be more important in determining their day-to-day driving safety during the commute home than the self-control demands they face during the workday.

This paper studies how the perceived work strain of first-line and middle managers affects their leadership towards their own employees. Further, it also examines how the availability of a manager can affect the perceived work strain, as a resource. The study answers the two following questions: “What experiences do first line and middle managers have of factors affecting their work strain and their leadership efficiency?” and “How do first line and middle managers balance demands, expectations, work strain and leadership?” This is a qualitative study based on the theoretical framework “Job-Demands-Resource model”. The data collected from five interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis methods. The findings of this study indicate that work strain can be a positive or negative thing, depending on the allocated resources at hand for the first line or middle managers. Having enough resources makes the high work strain translate to motivation and accomplishment, while high work strain without enough resources leads to a lack of motivation and accomplishment. The biggest effect the high work strain without resources has on leadership is that there is no time to be present with the employees, leading to a negative cycle.

En enkätundersökning genomfördes vars syfte var att undersöka om det fanns en relation mellan grundskolelärares arbetsbetsrelaterade krav, kontroll, socialt stöd och subjektivt välmående. Syftet var också att undersöka om det fanns någon relation mellan arbetsbetsrelaterade krav, kontroll, socialt stöd och upplevelse av stress. Urvalet bestod av 365 grundskolelärare. Enkäten besvarades via en länk som med mail skickades ut till de grundskolor som valde att delta i undersökningen. En länk lades också ut på olika Facebook grupper för att öka stickprovets storlek. Prediktorerna krav, kontroll och socialt stöd mättes med General Nordic Questionnaire for Psychological and Social Factors at Work (QPS Nordic-34+). Beroendevariabeln subjektivt välmående mättes med The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Beroendevariabeln stress mättes med QPS Nordic-34+. Data analyserades i dataprogrammet SPSS med hjälp av en multipel regressionsanalys. Resultatet visade att krav, kontroll och socialt stöd signifikant predicerade grundskolelärarnas välmående. Vidare visade resultatet att krav och kontroll signifikant predicerade upplevelsen av stress. Socialt stöd predicerade inte upplevelsen av stress signifikant. Trots vissa begränsningar i undersökningen har slutsatsen gjorts att krav, kontroll och socialt stöd är av betydelse för lärares välmående. Arbetsrelaterade krav och kontroll kan förklara deltagarnas upplevelse av stress. Resultatet diskuterades i relation till tidigare genomförda studier. För vidare forskning gavs förslag om att använda en skala som också mäter externa krav som kopplas ihop med grundskolelärares sociala interaktion med elever och deras vårdnadshavare. / A survey was constructed whose purpose was to examine if there was a relationship between the primary school teacher work-related demands, control, social support and subjective well-being. The aim was also to examine whether there was any relationship between work-related demands, control, social support and experience of stress. The sample consisted of 365 primary school teacher. The questionnaire was answered by a link as with email was sent out to the schools that chose to participate in the survey. A link was also posted on various Facebookgroups to increase the sample size. The predictors demands, control and social support was measured with the General Nordic Questionnaire for Psychological and Social Factors at Work (QPS Nordic-34 +). Dependent variable subjective well-being was measured with The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Dependent variable stress was measured with QPS Nordic-34 +. Data were analyzed in the computer program SPSS using a multiple regression analysis. The results showed that demands, control and social support significantly predicted primary school teachers' well-being. The results also showed that demand and control significantly predicted the experience of stress. Social support predicted no experience of stress significantly. Despite some limitations in the study the conclusion has been made that the demands, control and social support are important for teachers' well-being. Work-related demands and control can explain participant’s experience of stress. The results were discussed in relation to previous studies. For further research a suggestion was to use a scale that also measures the external requirements linked with primary school teachers' social interaction with the pupils and their guardian.

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Det moderna arbetslivet genomgår snabba och stora förändringar och ändrar  örutsättningarna för många yrkesgrupper i hur arbetet ska bedrivas på bästa och mest effektiva sätt. Detta får konsekvenser för olika yrkesgruppers arbetssituationer. En yrkesgrupp som inte har fått ett allt för nämnvärt fokus i forskningen kring förändrade arbetssituationer är HR-medarbetare. Syftet med den här studien är att öka förståelsen för hur HR-medarbetare upplever och hanterar sin arbetssituation utifrån arbetskrav och arbetsresurser. Tre frågeställningar har utformats för att omfamna och konkretisera syftet ytterligare. Studien baseras på fem utvalda respondenter, som arbetar som HR-generalister eller HR Business Partners. Studien har genomförts med en kvalitativ forskningsmetod i form av intervjuer och har utgått från en abduktiv ansats. Studien påvisar att det finns olika uppfattningar mellan HR-medarbetare om vilka resurser som anses viktiga i arbetet. Studien har även visat på att HR-medarbetare ställs inför höga arbetskrav i form av framför allt hög arbetsbelastning och stora rollkonflikter. Resultatet  visar att HR-medarbetarna vanligtvis hanterar svåra arbetssituationer genom problemfokuserade hanteringsstrategier. / The modern working life is going through big and rapid changes, which change the prerequisites for a lot of professions in how work should be conducted and utilized in best manners. This leads to consequences in the work situation for different professions. One profession that hasn’t a cquired a lot of focus in the research about changing work situations, is the HR Practitioners. The aim of this study is to increase the understanding in how HR Practitioners experience and manage their work situation from the basis of work demands and work resources. Three research questions have further been formed, with the aim to embrace and concrete the purpose of the study. The study is based on five selected candidates, who works as HR Generalists or HR Business Partners. The study has been conducted with a qualitative research method in the form of interviews and an abductive approach. The study demonstrates different opinions among the HR Practitioners about which kind of work resources that is considered most important at work. Results also show that HR Practitioners faces high work demands, mostly in the form of high work load and big role conflicts. Finally, the results show that HR Practitioners mostly apprehend and manage the severe work situations they face with a problem focused coping strategy.

The study seeks to bring together literature on decision-making, the effects of work-related demands and stress, and individual differences in trait anxiety on near and far transfer effects of emotional working memory training (eWM). A sample of 31 students and working participants underwent emotional working memory training through an adaptive dual n-back method or a placebo face match training task for 14 days. Pre- and post-training measures were taken of a near transfer task, digit span, medium transfer measure of executive control, emotional Stroop, and a far transfer task of decision-making under uncertainty, the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). In line with previous studies, eWM was expected to show gains in transfer task performance between pre- and post-training, and, especially for those scoring high on trait anxiety and workplace measures of stress demands (taken from COPSOQ), for whom there is more scope for improvement in emotional regulation. Gains in emotional Stroop specifically were further expected to show support for the effects of eWM training on emotional well-being in addition to decision-making. Results fell short of replicating previous work on transfer gains, though interference effects in Stroop did lessen in the eWM training group. Relationships between work demands, anxiety, stress and performance in the training itself, reinforce previous research showing that work stress and anxiety lead to cognitive failures, highlighting the importance of intervention studies in the organizational field, but they were not linked to benefits of the training. Resource and methodological limitations of the current study are considered, especially those involved in conducting pre-post designs and cognitive testing online.

The purpose of this essay is to examine the experiences of retail sales associates regarding work demands, the conditions provided to them to meet these demands, and the strategies they use to manage their work situation. The essay aims to highlight the challenges faced by retail sales associates, especially when high work demands and quantitative targets overshadow their human needs and well-being. The role of a retail sales associate involves a constant balancing act between satisfying customers' individual needs and preferences while also meeting employer demands and sales targets, which can pose a significant challenge for many sales associates. The essay is built on a qualitative approach together with the included theoretical framework which is Karasek and Theorell's demand-control-support model, as well as Arlie Hochschild's concepts of emotional labor, feeling rules, and surface and deep acting. From the collected empirical material, alongside the theoretical framework, three key themes emerged that formed the results of the study, which are: The new Taylorism – a combination between emotional labor and sale pressure, Levels of conditions – from customer to management, Taking control and withstand alienation, When the organization's support is lacking, colleagues play a decisive role. The results therefore suggest that the retail sales associates' work environment is characterized by high sales demands, subtle expectations for emotional labor, and insufficient resources. To cope with these demands, sales associates seek support from their colleagues and attempt to create a work culture that resists individualism and alienation, particularly when the support provided by employers is deemed inadequate. / Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka butikssäljares upplevelser av arbetskrav, de förutsättningar som de tillhandahålls för att möta dessa krav, och de strategier som butikssäljarna själva använder för att hantera sin arbetssituation. Uppsatsen strävar efter att belysa de utmaningar som butikssäljare möter, särskilt när höga arbetskrav och kvantitativa mål dominerar över deras mänskliga behov och välbefinnande. Att arbeta som butikssäljare innebär bevisligen en ständig balansakt mellan att tillgodose kundernas individuella behov och önskemål samtidigt som arbetsgivarens krav och försäljningsmål ska upprätthållas, vilketför många butikssäljare kan innebära en utmaning. Uppsatsen genomfördes genom kvalitativ metod och det teoretiska ramverk som använts är Karasek och Theorells krav-kontroll-stödmodell samt Arlie Hochschilds begrepp emotionellt lönearbete, känsloregler samt yt- och djupagerande. Genom det empiriskt insamlade materialet tillsammans med det teoretiska ramverket framträdde tre centrala teman som utgjorde resultatet för undersökningen, vilka är följande: Den nya Taylorismen – kombination mellan emotionellt arbete och säljpress, Nivåer av förutsättningar – från kund till ledning, Att ta kontroll och motstå alienation, När organisationens stöd brister spelar kollegorna en avgörande roll. Resultatet visar således sammanfattningsvis en framträdande bild av hurbutikssäljares arbetsmiljö präglas av höga försäljningskrav, subtila förväntningar på emotionella investeringar i arbetet och bristande förutsättningar. För att hantera arbetskraven söker butikssäljarna stöd från kollegor och försöker själva skapa en arbetskultur som motstårindividualism och alienation, när de förutsättningar som arbetsgivarna tillhandahåller anses otillräckliga.