In this collection of papers I have summarized my investigations into the field of evolutionary genetics and more specifically into patterns of biodiversity and evolutionary processes. The lizards (and frogs) studied here share common features in that they are largely present in unique environments, which are also regions that are biologically understudied. Most of these taxa show high degrees of endemism, interesting natural history characteristics, and each group manifests distinctive adaptations of general evolutionary interest. My work in the genus Telmatobius has been a progressive approach that began in my MS program, and it first focused on alpha taxonomy, morphological variation, and species boundaries. This work led to new studies initiated and completed at BYU involving further taxonomic revision (Formas et al., 2003; Chapter 1), and then revisiting and re-evaluating species boundaries established earlier (with allozyme markers) and this time with population level molecular (mitochondrial DNA) markers (Chapter 2). Our results indicate that the striking differences in size, coloration and general appearance in the various Lake Titicaca morphotypes are not genetically based. Further, there is evidence that these morphotypes have evolved very rapidly after demographic bottlenecks eroded present genetic variability. Telmatobius frogs of Lake Titicaca are listed by the International (IUCN) as critically endangered. We support this classification and further suggest studies to explore open questions like the possibility of adaptation along ecological resource gradients. Lizards of the genus Microlophus are interesting but for different reasons, and studies of this group constitutes the bulk of my dissertation work. The genus includes both Galapagos insular species, and continental taxa distributed in a linear gradient along > 4000 km of the western coast of South America. In studying Microlophus I first tackled the unresolved phylogenetic relationships within the genus (Chapter 3) and then pay attention to phylogeographic aspects of the most speciose lizard radiation in the Galapagos Archipelago (Chapter 4). Chapter 3 is a single manuscript provisionally accepted in the journal Systematic Biology. This paper introduces the lizard genus Microlophus (“lava lizards”) as a study system, and includes a large nuclear data set accompanied by an equally large mitochondrial data set (7877 characters in total). This paper explicitly differentiates among sequence alignments of gene regions that vary in tempo and class of mutational events. We show that this recognition is important and we suggest ways to appropriately deal with the alignment of multi-locus non-coding DNA data sets. A secondary finding in this study is that mtDNA and nDNA topologies are discordant with each other but that both are strongly supported, and that the nuclear topology is concordant with species distribution patterns along coastal South America. We hypothesize that in this particular region of the tree, the nuclear genome recovers a topology that is closer to the species tree, and conflicts occur due to likely secondary contact of distantly related taxa, suggesting that unique taxonomic relationships in the mtDNA gene tree are the result of hybridization. This last point highlights the value of dense taxonomic and character sampling for teasing apart different aspects of evolutionary processes. Chapter 4 is a manuscript to be submitted to the journal Evolution; in this study we further investigate the most speciose radiation of Microlophus in the Galapagos, based on an unparalleled sampling of most islands and small islets in the Archipelago. We use mtDNA sequences to both test hypothesized between-island colonization routes, as well as the expectation that within-island phylogeographic structure should be greater on older islands. Our mtDNA gene tree is strongly supported and allows rejection of previous alternatives, and we propose a novel sequence of between-island colonization events. Our results also reject the idea of phylogeographic structure been related solely to island age. Instead, we provide evidence to suggest that active volcanism as a major player in the generation of genetic diversity in within-island environments, and this is further compounded by the seemingly stochastic nature of within-island long-distance colonization routes mediated by ocean currents. We suggest that the direction and intensity of these currents, as currently understood, are insufficient to generate a priori hypotheses of oceanic colonization routes and their influence on gene flow. We do show that the standard stepping-stone model of migration, where genetic interchange is only possible among neighboring localities, does not explain much of the within-island population genetic structure unraveled by this study. From a biological conservation perspective the study of patterns of recent evolutionary history in the Galapagos provides with a window to evolutionary processes that have shaped and continue to impact the generation of biodiversity in the Galapagos Archipelago. Islands have long been viewed as natural laboratories of evolutionary change, and thus all island isolates are or could be distinctly important components of the larger, archipelago-wide processes. We provide working hypotheses for some of the demographic processes that might be generating within- and between-island biodiversity in this clade of lizards; confirmation of these explanations with independent data will have management implications for conserving the unique patterns observed in the Galapagos biota, but also the processes that generated these patterns.

La bande côtière du littoral Sud-ouest de Madagascar est occupée par le groupe des Vezo dont la pêche est le principal moyen de subsistance. Cette occupation s’inscrit dans une longue histoire depuis l’époque de la traite d’esclaves, au XVIIème siècle. Les Vezo ont fondé leur identité grâce à la pêche et à la maîtrise de la navigation, avec la mise en place de sites interdits en mer pour gérer les ressources. Au début des années 1980, les océanographes ont signalé que les écosystèmes marins et côtiers étaient « en danger ». On attribue généralement la dégradation de l’environnement à l’accroissement de la pauvreté, à une demande accrue de produits halieutiques par le marché national et international, ainsi qu’à l’augmentation du nombre des usagers de la mer. Le diagnostic négatif quant à l’évolution des écosystèmes est à l’origine de l’intervention des institutions internationales et agences de développement dès le début des années 1990. Sur le registre du développement, il s’agit alors de moderniser les pratiques traditionnelles vezo et leurs engins de pêche. Dans le même temps, les conservationnistes créent des réserves marines et assurent la promotion du « volontourisme » et de l’aquaculture. A travers l’exemple d’Andavadoake, nous analysons l’évolution de l’occupation de l’espace ainsi que celle des pratiques de pêche, dont l’originalité était la gestion des tanifaly, espaces sacrés. Quelle évolution de l’identité vezo autorise l’appréhension d’un tel changement ? Une analyse des stratégies territoriales dans leur profondeur historique nous permet de remettre en cause le classement des Vezo en groupe ethnique, ce qui est aussi une des ambitions de notre thèse. Enfin, nous évaluons dans quelle mesure la politique de mise en réserves des écosystèmes marins a participé aux transformations organisationnelles et spatiales des Vezo. / The coastal strip of the southwest of Madagascar is occupied by the group of Vezo whose fishing is the main livelihood. This occupation is part of a long history since the days of the slave trade (seventeenth century). Vezo based their identity through fishing (with the introduction of banned sites to manage marine resources) and control of navigation. In the early 1980s, oceanographers have reported that marine and coastal ecosystems are "in danger." It is generally attributed to increased poverty, a strong demand for fish products by the national and international market, and a higher number of users of the sea. The negative result in the evolution of these ecosystems is the origin of the intervention, since the early 1990s, of the international institutions and development agencies to modernize traditional vezo practices and fishing gear. Similarly, conservationists have established marine protected areas and promoted “volontourism” and aquaculture. Through the example of Andavadoake, we analyze the evolution of the use of space as well as fishing practices, whose originality was managing tanifaly "sacred sites" which changes the vezo identity. An analysis of regional strategies in their historical depth allows us to challenge the classification in Vezo ethnic group, which is also one of the goals of our thesis. Finally, we will evaluate to what extent the policy of setting reserves participated in the organizational and spatial transformations Vezo. Finally, we evaluate how expansion of marine protected areas participate in the Vezo's organizational and spatial transformations.

Si le choc de la colonisation de la Nouvelle-Calédonie évoqué dans le préambule de l’accord sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie du 5 mai 1998 n’est plus à démontrer, les moyens développés par le droit français à l’endroit du peuple restent à être examinés. Compte tenu des relations particulières qu’entretiennent les Kanak à la terre, le choc des cultures va se traduire par l’opposition des droits entre une coutume immuable, et un droit français qui sacralise la propriété privée, participant aux droits de l’homme et du citoyen Ces particularismes propres à la colonisation de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, ont pris de multiples formes juridiques, pour ce qui est de la prise de possession elle-même puisque le peuple premier kanak va connaitre un traité (1844), une prise de possession en 1853, et des actes de reconnaissance de souveraineté paraphés par certains chefs (1854) sur la Grande Terre.1Notre questionnement permanent est donc celui de savoir comment le peuple kanak a subi en vertu du droit français un bouleversement fondamental de son espace foncier vital, des zones d’influences de ses chefferies traditionnelles, une déstructuration de son organisation dotée de ses propres codes. La reconnaissance constitutionnelle d’un statut personnel propre au peuple premier dans l’accord de Nouméa de 1998, va permettre de confirmer et d’assurer la prééminence des usages coutumiers, non plus dans ce seul domaine, mais pour tout ce qui concerne le droit civil. Le droit français réputé fondé sur l’égalité. L’application au peuple kanak de Nouvelle-Calédonie montre que cette idée doit être réexaminée. Aussi, qu’il s’agisse de la période de la colonisation (1ere partie) et son droit discriminatoire négatif où celle de la décolonisation (2eme partie) et son droit discriminatoire positif, le peuple kanak a connu et connaît toujours des règles différentes / If the shock of the colonization of New Caledonia evoked in the introduction of the agreement on New Caledonia of May 5th, 1998 is not to be any more demonstrated, themeans developed by the French law towards the people remain to be examined. Considering the particular relations that maintain Kanak in the land, the shock of the cultures is goi ng to be translated by the opposition of the rights be tween an unchanging custom, and a French law which makes sacred the private property, participat ing in the rights of man and the citizen. These senses of identity appropriate for the coloni zation of New Caledonia, took multiple legal forms, as for the very taking possession because the Kanak first people knows a treaty (1844), a taking possession in 1853, and acts of gratitude of sovere ignty were signed by leaders (1854 ) on the Big Earth 2 . Our permanent questioning is thus the one to know how the Kanak people underwent by virtue of the French law a fundamental upheaval of his vital land space, spheres of influence ofhis traditional chieftainships, a disintegration of his organizatio n endowed with his owncodes. The constitutional gratitude of a personal status a ppropriate for the first people in the agreement of Noumea of 1998, is going to allow to confirm and to assure the superiority of the usual uses, either i n this only domain, but for all which concerns the ci vil law. The renowned French law based on the equality. The application to the Kanak people of New Caledonia shows that this idea must be revised. So, it is about the period of the colonization ( 1st part)) and its negative discriminatory law wher e that of the decolonization (2eme left) and its posi tive discriminatory law, Kanak people knew and always knows different rules.

La Gendarmerie nationale gabonaise est une des plus anciennes institutions militaires du Gabon moderne. Elle est chargée d'assurer la défense de l'intégrité du territoire national, le maintien de l'ordre public et la sécurité des personnes et des institutions. L'étude historique de cette force militaire montre que sa construction est indissociable de celle de l'État. Elle est non seulement le témoin sûr de l'évolution de cet État depuis 1945, mais elle participe également par son rôle à sa fabrication. Les deux institutions sont des legs de la colonisation française. La gendarmerie gabonaise est aussi une œuvre de la coopération militaire franco-gabonaise. Sa création officielle remonte au 30 décembre1960, quatre mois après l'accession du Gabon à l'indépendance. L'héritage de la gendarmerie de l'Afrique équatoriale française, qui sert de base à sa mise sur pied, est composé des unités territoriales et mobiles (brigades, postes, pelotons), des hommes, des règlements ainsi que des équipements et des infrastructures. La France intervient dans le cadre de la coopération militaire pour son organisation, l’encadrement et la formation des hommes, puis l'aide matérielle et financière. Mais, loin d'être évidente, l'édification de la Gendarmerie nationale gabonaise s'est effectuée dans des conditions marquées par les ambiguïtés de la politique française mêlant stratégies d'influence et actions de progrès. À cela s'ajoute, la complexité des rapports des autorités politiques gabonaises avec les premières élites militaires. Ces faits, qui altèrent quelque peu sa constitution et ses liens avec l'État, n'empêchent pas au Gabon d'organiser une gendarmerie selon le modèle français et de l'employer comme outil de la construction de l’État. / The National Gendarmerie of Gabon is one of the oldest military institutions in modern Gabon. It is responsible for the defense of national territory integrity, for maintaining public order and for the security of persons and institutions. The historical study of this military force shows that its construction is inseparable from that of the state. It is not only the sure testimony of the path of this state since 1945, but also participates by its role for the construction and formation of the Gabon state. Both institutions are legacies of French colonization. The Gendarmerie Gabon is also a product of military cooperation between France and Gabon. Its official creation dates back to December 30, 1960, four months after the independence of Gabon. The legacy of the gendarmerie of the French Equatorial Africa (L’Afrique Équatoriale Française), that serves as the basis for its establishment, is composed of territorial and mobil units (brigades, posts, platoons), men, different legal tools, as well as technical equipment and infrastructure. The French Republic intervenes in the context of military cooperation for its organization, supervision and training of its human resources. This is also followed by material and financial aid. Nevertheless, far from being obvious, the construction of the Gabonese National Gendarmerie was carried out under conditions marked by the ambiguities of French politics, merging strategies of influence in the national politics with some progressive actions. Furthermore, it is important to add that the construction of the Gabonese Gendarmerie was accompanied with the complexity of the relations between the Gabonese political authorities and the military elites. These facts, which slightly alter its constitution and links with the Gabonese state, do not prevent Gabon from organizing a gendarmerie according to the French model and using it as tool for the construction of the state.

<p>The first hospital outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) and carriage rates of VRE and ampicillin-resistant enterococci (ARE) in Sweden were investigated. Clonal relationships and mutations in fluoroquinolone resistance determining regions among ARE collected nation-wide were studied. Risk factors for ARE infection, shedding of ARE and the presence of the virulence gene <i>esp</i> in ARE isolates and patients on a hematology unit and other units at Uppsala University Hospital were further investigated. </p><p>The first Swedish hospital VRE outbreak was due to clonal spread of <i>E. faecium, vanA</i>. The nation wide carriage rates of ARE and VRE were 21.5% / 1% and 6% / 0%, among hospitalized patients and non-hospitalized individuals respectively. All ARE and VRE were <i>E. faecium</i> and >90% resistant to ciprofloxacin. All VRE carried<i> vanB</i>. Carriage of ARE was independently associated with >5 days of antibiotic treatment. Phenotypic and genetic typing showed a significantly higher homogeneity among ARE compared to matched ASE <i>E. faecium</i> isolates. Mutations conferring high-level ciprofloxacin resistance were found only in ARE. Risk factors for ARE infection included long duration of hospital stay and exposure to antibiotics. Skin carriage was associated with ARE shedding. ARE bacteremia was independently associated with prior ARE colonization and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Death was more common in ARE septicemia cases compared to controls. <i>Esp</i> was significantly more common in ARE surveillance compared to ARE blood isolates from patients on the hematology ward.</p><p>In conclusion, VRE were rare but clonally related multi-resistant ARE <i>E. faecium</i> were highly prevalent in Swedish hospitals. Spread of ARE in hospitals during the 1990s is suggested to be the main explanation for the emergence of ARE in Sweden. Spread was facilitated by use of antibiotics and probably by the presence of virulence genes in<i> E. faecium</i> isolates.</p>

<p>This thesis examines the relative importance of local conditions, dispersal and dynamics of the trees on epiphyte distribution patterns and colonization-extinction dynamics. Study species are the mosses <i>Orthotrichum speciosum </i>and <i>O. obtusifolium</i>, and the red-listed <i>Neckera pennata</i>. The thesis also includes an attempt to parameterize a model for a lichen metapopulation (<i>Lobaria pulmonaria</i>) in a dynamic landscape, based on only presence/absence data of the epiphyte and its host trees. </p><p>The results show that epiphyte colonization of trees is affected by both local conditions, and by connectivity to occupied trees. The positive effect of connectivity, implying a restricted dispersal range, was established by both demographic and genetic studies. The important local conditions were tree diameter and vitality, and shade. Local extinctions from trees occurred among small trees with low local epiphyte abundance, but more often, were the results of tree fall.</p><p>The observed importance of connectivity on epiphyte colonization agrees with the assumptions of the classic metapopulation model. However, the classic metapopulation model assumes that the landscape is static, and that local extinctions occur for stochastic reasons. The dynamics of epiphytes are different. A new conceptual model is therefore suggested, the patch-tracking metapopulation model. It differs from the classic metapopulation model in that it includes dynamics of the patches, and in that local extinctions only occur as patches are destroyed.</p><p>Simulations of the dynamics of <i>N. pennata </i>showed that its future metapopulation size will be overestimated unless the dynamics of the trees are accounted for. The simulation results further suggest that the dynamics of <i>N. pennata </i>can be characterised by the patch-tracking metapopulation model. </p><p>The attempt to parameterize the <i>L. pulmonaria </i>metapopulation model showed that more information are required for rigorous parameterization, preferably of the past historic fire regime.</p>

The University Hospital of Liège has 955 beds in 8 intensive care units, 15 medical wards, 10 surgical wards and 1 paediatric ward. Approximately 36,000 patients are admitted each year, giving a total of 265,000 patient-days hospitalization. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (E-ESBL) constitute, along with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), the main multi-resistant bacteria recovered in our hospital. The aims of the present study were to: - evaluate the epidemiology of E-ESBL - evaluate the impact of an infection control programme to reduce the spread of E-ESBL in the University Hospital of Liège. In order to do this, several studies were carried out between 2001 and 2007: 1. Determination of the high risk units in the CHU (2001) The high risk units were determined by comparing the incidence rates of each type of unit. Two types of high risk unit were identified in this way: the Intensive Care Units (ICUs) and the Onco-Haematology Unit. 2. Epidemiology of E-ESBL in the Onco-Haematology unit (2002-2003 and 2005-2006) Digestive tract colonization by E-ESBL was found to be relatively high (7.3%) and this explains the high incidence of E-ESBL in Onco-Haematology in comparison with the rest of the hospital. However, the clinical gravity associated with exposure to the risk factor (digestive tract colonization by E-ESBL) was found to be relatively weak. 3. Importance of digestive tract colonization by E-ESBL in General ICUs (2002-2003) Digestive tract colonization by E-ESBL was found to be relatively common (8.8%) and faecal carriage of E-ESBL was found to be a good marker for infection with E-ESBL at another body site. Even though the number of infected patients was found to be low, the risk of infection due to E-ESBL was multiplied by 14.7 in a group of digestive carriers of E-ESBL with regard to a group of non carriers. Our data also showed that Enterobacter aerogenes is the most frequent species producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) and that TEM-24 is the most prevalent ESBL produced by E-ESBL species in our ICUs. No CTX-M-type genes were identified. With regard to antibiotic susceptibility, meropenem and cefepime appeared to be the most active agents against the majority of isolates. 4. Impact of an infection control programme to reduce the spread of E-ESBL (2006-2007) A surveillance programme was carried out to evaluate the implementation of infection control procedures including surveillance of ESBL-producing strains, utilization of computer alerts for E-ESBL positive patients and the application of contact precautions for colonized or infected patients. Infection control compliance observations were performed by trained referring nurses. During the 2 years of application, one or more E-ESBL were identified in 500 patients. A total of 2268 internal messages regarding the identification of E-ESBL were sent within the hospital, among which 91.84 % were received (at least 1 for every patient). An alert was associated with 406 patients, who were always hospitalized as the identification of the E-ESBL by the laboratory was obtained. A total of 257 registration forms were filled in by the referring nurses, resulting in a survey compliance of 63%. This survey showed that door signs identifying positive patients, hydro-alcoholic solution and gloves were present in 90% of the cases, but that gowns were only present in 59%. The overall incidence of nosocomial acquisition of E-ESBL between 2006 and 2007 was 0.92/1000 patient-days, more or less the same as in 2002. In relation to this research, several questions remain: - Even though the rates of digestive tract colonization with E-ESBL in the 2 types of high risk unit were found to be more or less the same (7.3 and 8.8%), the impact on infections due to E-ESBL was very different. - Are the infections due either to E-ESBL endogenous infections (owing notably to the use of broad spectrum antibiotics) or to secondary infections (resulting from cross-transmission) or to both? The implementation of an infection control programme to limit the spread of E-ESBL has been based on the limitation of the cross-transmission of these micro-organisms. An enhanced barrier precautions policy has been in place in our institution for 2 years, and we have seen no erosion in compliance. We should not however lose sight of the fact that, whatever the institutional policy for the management of multi-resistant bacteria, the correct application of standard precautions for all patients is the first measure to limit the cross-transmission of all micro-organisms.

Non-mycorrhizal fungal endophytes are able to colonize internally roots without causing visible disease symptoms establishing neutral or mutualistic associations with plants. These fungi known as non-clavicipitaceous endophytes have a broad host range of monocot and eudicot plants and are highly diverse. Some of them promote plant growth and confer increased abiotic-stress tolerance and disease resistance. According to such possible effects on host plants, it was aimed to isolate and to characterize native fungal root endophytes from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) and to analyze their effects on plant development, plant resistance and fruit yield and quality together with the model endophyte Piriformospora indica. Fifty one new fungal strains were isolated from desinfected tomato roots of four different crop sites in Colombia. These isolates were roughly characterized and fourteen potential endophytes were further analyzed concerning their taxonomy, their root colonization capacity and their impact on plant growth. Sequencing of the ITS region from the ribosomal RNA gene cluster and in-depth morphological characterisation revealed that they correspond to different phylogenetic groups among the phylum Ascomycota. Nine different morphotypes were described including six dark septate endophytes (DSE) that did not correspond to the Phialocephala group. Detailed confocal microscopy analysis showed various colonization patterns of the endophytes inside the roots ranging from epidermal penetration to hyphal growth through the cortex. Tomato pot experiments under glass house conditions showed that they differentially affect plant growth depending on colonization time and inoculum concentration. Three new isolates (two unknown fungal endophyte DSE48, DSE49 and one identified as Leptodontidium orchidicola) with neutral or positiv effects were selected and tested in several experiments for their influence on vegetative growth, fruit yield and quality and their ability to diminish the impact of the pathogen Verticillium dahliae on tomato plants. Although plant growth promotion by all three fungi was observed in young plants, vegetative growth parameters were not affected after 22 weeks of cultivation except a reproducible increase of root diameter by the endophyte DSE49. Additionally, L. orchidicola increased biomass and glucose content of tomato fruits, but only at an early date of harvest and at a certain level of root colonization. Concerning bioprotective effects, the endophytes DSE49 and L. orchidicola decreased significantly disease symptoms caused by the pathogen V. dahliae, but only at a low dosis of the pathogen. In order to analyze, if the model root endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica could be suitable for application in production systems, its impact on tomato was evaluated. Similarly to the new fungal isolates, significant differences for vegetative growth parameters were only observable in young plants and, but protection against V. dahliae could be seen in one experiment also at high dosage of the pathogen. As the DSE L. orchidicola, P. indica increased the number and biomass of marketable tomatoes only at the beginning of fruit setting, but this did not lead to a significant higher total yield. If the effects on growth are due to a better nutrition of the plant with mineral element was analyzed in barley in comparison to the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae. While the mycorrhizal fungus increased nitrogen and phosphate uptake of the plant, no such effect was observed for P. indica. In summary this work shows that many different fungal endophytes can be also isolated from roots of crops and, that these isolates can have positive effects on early plant development. This does, however, not lead to an increase in total yield or in improvement of fruit quality of tomatoes under greenhouse conditions. / Endophyten, die nicht zu den Mykorrhizapilzen gehören, können das Innere von Wurzeln ohne sichtbare Krankheitssymptome besiedeln und bilden so mit der Pflanze neutrale oder mutualistische Wechselwirkungen. Diese Pilze, auch als nicht-clavicipetale Endophyten bekannt, haben ein breites Wirtsspektrum von mono- und dikotyledonen Pflanzen und weisen eine hohe Diversität auf. Einige von ihnen fördern Pflanzenwachstum und erhöhen Resistenz und Toleranz gegenüber biotischem und abiotischem Stress. Ausgehenden von diesen möglichen Effekten auf ihre Wirtspflanzen war das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit die Isolierung und Charakterisierung neuer pilzlicher Wurzelendophyten der Tomate (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) und die Analyse ihres Einflusses auf Pflanzenentwicklung und Pflanzenresistenz, sowie auf Ertrag und Fruchtqualität unter Einbeziehung des Modellendophyten Piriformospora indica. Aus vier verschiedenen Anbaugebieten in Kolumbien konnten 51 neue Pilzstämme von oberflächensterilisierten Tomatenwurzeln isoliert werden. Diese Isolate wurden vorcharakterisiert und 14 potentielle Endophyten bezüglich ihrer Taxonomie, ihrer Besiedlungsmuster und ihres Einfluss auf das Pflanzenwachstum näher untersucht. Sequenzierung der ITS Region des ribosomalen RNA Genclusters und genaue morphologische Charakterisierung zeigten, dass sie zu verschiedenen phylogenetischen Gruppen innerhalb der Ascomycota gehören. Neun Morphotypen ließen sich beschreiben, wobei sechs zu den ‚Dark Septate Endophytes’ (DSEs) gehören, aber nicht mit der bekannten Phialocephala Gruppe verwandt waren. Ausführliche konfokale mikroskopische Untersuchungen ergaben sehr verschiedene Besiedelungsmuster der Wurzelendophyten vom Endringen in die Epidermis bis zum Hyphenwachstum durch den Kortex. Topfexperimente unter Gewächshausbedingungen zeigten dass die Isolate in Abhängigkeit von der Inokulumkonzentration und der Zeit der Besiedlung das Wachstum der Tomaten sehr unterschiedlich beeinflussten. Drei neue Isolate (die beiden unbekannte pilzlichen Endophyten DSE48 und DSE49 und eines identifiziert als Leptodontidium orchidicola) mit neutralen oder positiven Effekten wurden für weitere Versuche ausgewählt. In mehreren Experimenten sollte ihr Einfluss auf das vegetative Wachstum, auf Ertrag und auf Fruchtqualität untersucht werden, sowie ihre Fähigkeit die Auswirkungen des Pathogens Verticillium dahliae auf Tomatenpflanzen zu vermindern. Obwohl wachstumsfördernde Effekte durch alle drei Pilze in jungen Pflanzen beobachtet wurden, waren vegetative Wachstumsparameter nach 22 Wochen der Besiedlung nicht mehr beeinflusst bis auf ein signifikante Erhöhung des Wurzeldurchmessers durch den Endophyten DSE49. L. orchidicola dagegen erhöhte die Biomasse und den Glukosegehalt der Früchte, aber nur zu frühen Ernteterminen und bei einer bestimmten Intensität der Wurzelbesiedelung. Hinsichtlich eines schützenden Effekts, konnten die Endophyten DSE49 und L. orchidicola die Krankheitssymptome, die durch V. dahliae verursacht wurden, vermindern, aber nur bei einem geringen Pathogendruck. Um zu überprüfen, ob der Modellendophyt P. indica in Produktionssytemen eingesetzt werden kann, wurde seine Auswirkungen auf Tomaten untersucht. Ähnlich wie die neuen pilzlichen Isolate, zeigte aber auch er seinen fördernden Einfluss nur auf das frühe vegetative Wachstum. Schützende Effekte gegen V. dahliae konnten ebenfalls nur bei niedrigem Pathogendruck konstant beobachtet werden. Wie L. orchidicola erhöhte P. indica die Biomasse an marktfähigen Tomaten am Anfang des Fruchtansatzes, was nicht zu einem insgesamt höheren Ertrag führte. Ob die beobachteten Effekte auf ein verbesserte Nährstoffversorgung der Pflanze zurückzuführen seien, wurde in Gerste im Vergleich mit dem arbuskulären Mykorrhizapilz Glomus mosseae untersucht. Während der Mykorrhizapilz sowohl Phosphat wie Stickstoffaufnehme der Pflanze erhöhte, konnte dies für P. indica nicht festgestellt werden. Zusammenfassend zeigt diese Arbeit, dass auch aus Wurzeln von Kulturpflanzen viele verschiedene pilzliche Endophyten isoliert werden können, und dass einige von diesen durchaus einen positiven Effekt auf die frühe Pflanzenentwicklung aufweisen. Zumindest für Tomate unter Gewächshausbedingungen führen diese Effekte aber nicht zu einer Erhöhung des Gesamtertrags oder einer nachhaltigen Verbesserung der Fruchtqualität.

This dissertation is focussing on students’ experiences of assessments, which means that the assessments are related to studying. The assessments particularly investigated are the main types of assessments used in the application and selection for higher education in Sweden – the grading in schools on secondary level, and the Swedish Scholastic Aptitude Test (SweSAT). The literature review is an analysis of previous knowledge, resulting in a model of orientations to studying. The empirical investigation consists of interviews with 100 students in upper secondary school, municipal adult education and folk high schools. The interviews are analysed with a phenomenographic approach, and the analysis results in categories describing ways of experiencing what it means to study, ways of experiencing the grades, and the SweSAT. In addition to this, the analysis gives a description of relations between components within categories, relations between categories, and relations between phenomena. The main patterns in the students’ experiences of the assessments are the following: The different categories, describing the experiences of the assessments per se, are focussing on assessment of performance, assessment of personal qualities (including developed knowledge), or uncertainty in relation to the assessment. There are four main aspects of the students’ experiences of the value of assessments, i.e., the relation to future plans, the relation to the student’s personal context, the possibility to influence your result, and the relation to other assessments used in the selection. The final result of the empirical investigation is a reconstructed model of five orientations to studying, where the empirical results are integrated with previous knowledge. The five categories are the knowledge orientation, the duty orientation, the participation orientation, the qualification orientation, and the resistance orientation. These orientations are also described as adaptive and/or non-adaptive in relation to the demands of the education. A further analysis in relation to three social science perspectives shows how assessments can contribute to the colonization of the educational lifeworld, how assessments can be seen as instruments of discipline, and how assessments can be seen as disembedding mechanisms.

The overall aim of the present thesis was to investigate experiences of living with multidrug-resistant bacteria (MDRB), using methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) colonization as an illustration, and to develop and validate a tool to describe healthcare personnel’s attitudes towards patients with MDRB. A further objective was to study MRSA-colonized persons’ and healthcare personnel’s experiences of patient-professional interactions and responsibilities for infection prevention. Four empirical studies were conducted. A total of 18 MRSA-colonized persons and 20 healthcare personnel were interviewed regarding their experiences, and a total of 726 RNs responded the MDRB Attitude Questionnaire. The findings revealed the difficulties associated with living with MRSA colonization, which was described as something uncertain, and as an indefinable threat that has to be managed in both everyday life and in contacts with healthcare. Interactions with healthcare personnel were described as unprofessional owing to personnel’s inappropriate behaviour and insufficient information provision. According to the personnel, achieving adequate patient-professional interactions required having knowledge and experiences of MRSA. They also experienced difficulties in providing tailored information to patients. The MRSA-colonized persons described their unwanted responsibility to inform healthcare personnel about the colonization, but also felt responsible for limiting the spread of infection to others. Furthermore, responsibility for infection control was regarded as shared between healthcare personnel and patients. The personnel described such responsibility as a natural part of their daily work, although it was not always easy to adhere to hygiene precautions. The MRSA-colonized persons felt that healthcare personnel have insufficient knowledge of the bacteria and of hygiene precautions. The MDRB Attitude Questionnaire showed that registered nurses do have knowledge deficiencies. The MDRB Attitude Questionnaire has adequate psychometric properties. In conclusion, MRSA colonization constitutes a psychological strain for carriers, and interactions with healthcare personnel resulted in feelings of stigmatization. The present thesis indicates that there is a need to improve healthcare personnel’s knowledge, behaviour and emotional response in relation to patients with MDRB, in order to ensure patient safety and address patients’ needs. The heads of department is responsible for such improvements, and the MDRB Attitude Questionnaire is useful in identifying areas in need for improvement.