Na América Central, em países como Honduras, El Salvador, Nicarágua e Costa Rica, tem sido descrito lesões cutâneas não ulceradas, designadas como leishmaniose cutânea não ulcerada ou atípica (LCNU) causadas por Leishmania (L.) infantum chagasi. Em Honduras, leishmaniose visceral e leishmaniose cutânea não ulcerada ou atípica são produzidas pelo mesmo agente etiológico, Leishmania (L.) infantum chagasi e ocorrem na mesma área geográfica. A LCNU é a forma clínica mais comum, afetando principalmente crianças maiores de 5 anos e adultos jovens. A lesão é definida como uma pápula, nódulo indolor, não ulcerativo, eritematoso ou da cor da pele, na presença ou ausência de halo hipopigmentado. Tendo em vista que existe uma lacuna no conhecimento do padrão de resposta imunológica tecidual da leishmaniose cutânea não ulcerada ou atípica, este trabalho visou avaliar a resposta imunológica inflamatória e regulatória in situ das lesões de pele. Foram utilizadas 20 biópsias de pele, com diagnóstico parasitológico confirmado por raspado de lesão corado por Giemsa e observado em microscópio ótico. O estudo histopatológico foi avaliado em cortes histológicos corados com hematoxilina e eosina (HE) e o padrão da resposta imune inflamatória e regulatória por meio da reação de imuno-histoquímica utilizando marcadores para linfócito T (CD4 e CD8), T regulatório (FoxP3), e antígenos intracelulares como: IL-17, TGF-beta, IL-10, IL-6 e IFN-y. As alterações histopatológicas mais significativas foram observadas na derme e caracterizadas por um infiltrado inflamatório linfohistiocitário de intensidade variável e associado à formação de granulomas epitelioides. Já as alterações histopatológicas identificadas na epiderme mostraram-se mais leves e correspondem a leve adelgaçamento, leve acantose e exocitose focal linfohistiocitária. Em 55% dos casos, o parasitismo mostrou-se discreto. A análise imuno-histoquímica das lesões cutâneas dos pacientes com LCNU mostrou no infiltrado inflamatório a presença de todos os marcadores utilizados neste estudo, em especial de linfócitos T CD8+ e CD4+, e das citocinas inflamatórias IFN-y e IL-6. A participação de células FoxP3+, TGF-beta+ e IL-10+ foi discreta, assim como das células IL-17+. Os dados mostram uma participação maior da resposta inflamatória na leishmaniose cutânea não ulcerada ou atípica, capaz de controlar o parasitismo e consequentemente a evolução do tamanho da lesão; porém, embora mais discreta, a resposta imune regulatória pode ser responsável para manter um balanço na resposta imune celular evitando danos teciduais e levando a baixa persistência parasitária no tecido, necessária para a manutenção de uma imunidade protetora e duradoura / Honduras: evaluation of the inflammatory and regulatory immune response in situ in skin lesions [dissertation]. São Paulo: \"Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo\"; 2017. In Central America, in countries such as Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, non-ulcerated skin lesions, designated as non-ulcerated or atypical cutaneous leishmaniasis (NUCL) caused by Leishmania (L.) infantum chagasi, has been reported. In Honduras, visceral leishmaniasis and non-ulcerated or atypical cutaneous leishmaniasis are caused by the same etiologic agent, Leishmania (L.) infantum chagasi and occur in the same geographical area. NUCL is the most common clinical form, affecting mainly children older than 5 years and young adults. The lesion is defined as a papule, painless nodule, non-ulcerative, erythematous or skin color, in the presence or absence of hypopigmented halo. Considering that, there is a gap in the knowledge of the tissue immune response pattern of non-ulcerated or atypical cutaneous leishmaniasis, this study aimed to evaluate the in situ inflammatory and regulatory immune response of skin lesions. Twenty skin biopsies with a confirmed parasitological diagnosis by scraping of lesion stained by Giemsa and observed under an optical microscope were used. The histopathological study was evaluated in histological sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and the inflammatory and regulatory immune response through the immunohistochemistry reaction using T lymphocyte (CD4 and CD8), regulatory T (FoxP3) markers, and intracellular antigens such as IL-17, TGF-beta, IL-10, IL-6 and IFN-y. The most significant histopathological changes were observed in the dermis, and they were characterized by a lymphohistiocytic inflammatory infiltrate of variable intensity and associated to the formation of epithelioid granulomas. On the other hand, the histopathological changes identified in the epidermis were lighter and correspond to mild thinning, mild acanthosis and focal lymphohistiocytic exocytosis. In 55% of the cases, the parasitism was discreet. The immunohistochemistry analysis of the cutaneous lesions of patients with NUCL showed in the inflammatory infiltrate the presence of all the markers used in this study, especially CD8+ and CD4+ T lymphocytes, and the inflammatory cytokines IFN-y and IL-6. The participation of FoxP3+, TGF-beta+ and IL-10+ cells was discrete, as well as IL-17+ cells. The data show a higher participation of the inflammatory response in non-ulcerated or atypical cutaneous leishmaniasis, able to control the tissue parasitism and consequently the evolution of the lesion size; however, although discreet, the regulatory immune response may be responsible for maintaining a balance in the cellular immune response avoiding tissue damage and leading to low tissue parasitic persistence necessary for the maintenance of a protective and lasting immunity

O estudo apresenta uma análise sobre as trajetórias de Progressão Industrial em empresas/setores produtivos de países em desenvolvimento que participam de cadeias globais de formação de valor. Para isto são estudadas as cadeias produtivas do complexo têxtil-vestuário em Honduras e no Brasil. A análise usa as abordagens de Cadeias de Formação de Valor - Global Commodity Chains, assim como os modelos de Industrial Upgrading e a tipologia de Modernização Industrial. Estas abordagens julgaram-se complementares para a construção do referencial teórico do estudo. Em Honduras a pesquisa focalizou o caso das empresas maquiladoras de roupa, no Brasil estudaram-se as cadeias lideradas por empresas brasileiras que atuam no mercado nacional e internacional. “Estudos de Casos Múltiplos" foi a metodologia escolhida para a realização da pesquisa de campo, em função da necessidade de estudar casos complexos em contextos diferenciados. A reflexão final conclui que há diversos caminhos de inserção nas cadeias produtivas globais para as empresas dos países em desenvolvimento. Os avanços em termos Progressão Industrial para as empresas que participam dessas cadeias são limitados não só por aspectos tecnológicos ou de habilidades da força de trabalho local se não também pelas regulamentações do comércio internacional. Os acordos preferenciais e as barreiras comerciais são fundamentais para determinar as relações entre as empresas líderes e as subcontratadas, assim como a estrutura e a governance das cadeias produtivas globais. Mas também conclui-se que é possível uma inserção no mercado internacional menos dependente das empresas dos países centrais, que é através de cadeias lideradas por empresas dos países em desenvolvimento, utilizando para isso estratégias de inovação tecnológica, de gestão e em design e investimentos na valorização de marcas, atividades que geram maior valor agregado e permitem sua apropriação. / Abstract: The thesis is an analysis about the ways of the industrial upgrade in productive companies/sectors of developing countries which are included in global value chains. It was selected the productive chains of the textile/apparel sector in Honduras and Brazil. The analysis uses the approaches of global value chains and global commodity as well as the patterns (models?) of industrial upgrading and the typology of industrial modernization. These approaches were considered important to the theoretical references of the study. In Honduras, the research focus was on the dressing “maquilas". In Brazil the focus was on those chains leaded by Brazilian companies acting both in the national and international market. It was chosen the multiple study case methodology to the field research due to the complexity of the cases in different environments. It was concluded that there are several ways for a developing country company to be inserted in the productive global chains. It is limited the development in terms of industrial upgrading for those companies which participate in these chains, not only by technological and manpower aspects but by the international commerce regulatory framework. The commercial barriers and the preferential agreements are fundamental to determine the relations between the leading companies and the sub-contracted ones as well as the structure and the governance of the global productive chains. Otherwise, the study shows that by using strategies as: technological and management innovation; design and investments in the valuation of trademarks, the companies from developing countries can get international markets because these strategies aggregate more value and facilitate their appropriation. Resumem: Este estudio presenta el análisis de las trayectorias de Avance Industrial en empresas y sectores productivos de países en desarrollo que participan de cadenas globales de formación de valor, para el cual se estudian las cadenas productivas del complejo industrial textil-vestido en Honduras e en Brasil. Para la construcción del marco teórico se utilizan los modelos de Cadenas de Formación de Valor - Global Commodity Chains, de Industrial Upgrading y la topología de Modernización Industrial. En Honduras se investigaron las empresas maquiladoras de ropa y en Brasil las cadenas lideradas por empresas brasileñas que actúan en el mercado nacional y en el internacional. Se escogió la metodología de “Estudios de Casos Múltiples" para realizar la investigación de campo, debido a la necesidad de analizar casos complejos en diferentes contextos. Se concluye finalmente que hay diversos caminos para la participación de las empresas de los países en desarrollo en cadenas productivas globales y que los avances en términos de Avance Industrial para estas empresas son limitados, no solo por aspectos tecnológicos o por la falta de habilidades de la fuerza laboral local, sino además por las leyes del comercio internacional. Los tratados de preferenciales y las barreras comerciales son determinantes fundamentales de las relaciones entre las empresas líderes y las subcontratadas, de la composición y de la estructura de poder en dichas cadenas productivas globales. Pero se concluye además, que hay posibilidades de participar en el mercado internacional de forma menos dependiente de las empresas de los países desarrollados y que esto puede ser alcanzado en cadenas productivas lideradas por empresas de los países en desarrollo, si estas implementan estrategias de innovación tecnológica y de gestión, con inversión en diseño y en la valorización de marcas originales pues son estas, pues son estas las actividades que generan mayor valor agregado y posibilitan su apropiación

This thesis presents the findings of an investigation of the spatial and temporal distribution of soil macrofauna at multiple scales within smallholder agriforestry fields in a remote, mountainous area of western Honduras. Since 1990, smallholder farmers in the study area have switched from traditional slash-and-burn agriculture to a form of slash-and-mulch agriforestry based on cultivating maize, beans and sorghum amongst dispersed trees. The principal objective was to examine the influence of the slash-and-mulch agricultural system on soil macrofauna abundance, biomass and community composition, and relate soil macrofauna distribution patterns to environmental variables. The initial stage of the research comprised transect-based sampling of soil macrofauna and biophysical variables in four common land uses of the study area. All four land uses (secondary forest, young milpa (agriforestry), mature milpa, and pasture) supported abundant, diverse and heterogeneous soil macrofauna communities, with few notable differences in soil macrofauna distribution among land uses. The most abundant soil macrofauna taxa were termites, ants, earthworms and beetles. Of the 'explanatory' environmental variables that were measured (including land use and selected soil properties, vegetation characteristics and topographic variables), those that had the strongest relationships with soil macrofauna abundance were land use, tree density and soil organic matter content. The second stage of the research was spatially-orientated and used stratified sampling based on within-field differences in farmer-defined soil type, as well as grid-based sampling of soil macrofauna surface activity. There was substantial within-field variation in soil type and topography, which was related to distribution patterns of at least one agriculturally-important soil macrofauna taxon. Earthworm activity was higher in areas of fertile soil and lower slope positions. At a finer scale, there was a positive spatial correlation between tree distribution and earthworm casting activity. The final phase situated the biophysical research in the local socio-economic context through participant observation and interviews with farmers. The results of the three phases of the study were incorporated into an original conceptual model of the relationships among soil macrofauna and environmental variables in the study area across multiple spatial scales and along a chronosequence of land use changes. Specific pointers are provided for further research on the role of soil fauna in influencing soil structure, nutrient cycling and pest species abundance, and for further investigating local knowledge and the socio-economic and cultural drivers of land use change.

Le 28 juin 2009 eut lieu un coup d'État au Honduras. Lié à certains rapports de pouvoirs profondément ancrés dans la société hondurienne, la répression vécue par une grande partie de la société civile qui s'y opposa fut très forte. Face aux violations des droits humains ayant été commises dans ce contexte, ceux qui se considèrent comme des défenseurs des droits humains furent particulièrement actifs. Nous avons donc voulu savoir dans quelle mesure l'utilisation de ce discours axé sur la primauté des droits humains a porté fruit et constitue un véhicule approprié afin de porter les revendications de ces militants honduriens. Nos principales hypothèses sont que compte tenu des exactions commises par le nouveau gouvernement à l'endroit de nombreux acteurs de la société civile hondurienne, l'utilisation du discours des droits humains est considérée comme étant la meilleure option à portée de ces défenseurs afin de faire valoir leurs intérêts le plus efficacement possible, dans le cadre d'un répertoire de l'action collective historiquement limité par des relations sociales de propriété inégalitaires profondément enracinées dans la société hondurienne. En corolaire à celle-ci, notre deuxième hypothèse de recherche est que la compréhension de ce que sont les droits humains s'avère loin d'être la même pour tous les défenseurs des droits humains bien que les avantages liés à son utilisation soient semblables, chaque acteur ayant une conception différente de la chose en fonction de sa propre trajectoire. En nous basant sur des entrevues effectuées auprès d'Honduriens ayant assumé ce rôle de défenseurs des droits humains, les résultats indiquent qu'il existe effectivement d'assez grandes variations au niveau de la compréhension de ces droits en soi. Quelques-uns des principaux paramètres à avoir été pris en compte sont celui des devoirs et responsabilités, perçus ou réels, de l'État hondurien, de même que la portée de la notion de communauté internationale au cœur de ce discours. Si l'importance des institutions étatiques nationales au sein des différentes revendications semble claire, il reste que les limites des structures internationales aptes à recevoir ce type de doléances et à influer sur les politiques étatiques sont rapidement atteintes, ce qui complique l'articulation d'une opposition efficace contre les violations des droits humains au Honduras. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Droits humains, droits de la personne, droits de l'Homme, défense des droits, théories des relations sociales de propriété, théories des mouvements sociaux, coup d'État, 28 juin 2009, Honduras.

[pt] Paralelo às transições do Cone Sul, a transição política para a democracia em Honduras iniciou no ano 1980 com um conjunto de caraterísticas singulares e atípicas que a distinguem do resto das transições do continente Latino-americano, visto que coincidiu com o período mais crítico de violação sistemática dos direitos humanos, incluindo desaparecimentos forçados, assassinatos e repressão política de mais de uma centena de cidadãos pertencentes aos movimentos sociais de esquerda e de oposição política. Em consequência, sob intensas lutas sociais, o dia 30 de agosto de cada ano é oficialmente reconhecido como o Dia Nacional dos Detidos-Desaparecidos em Honduras, em que centenas de pessoas se reúnem para exigir ao Estado que forneça os espaços pertinentes para reconhecer que em Honduras há desaparecidos políticos, assassinados e torturados. Diante desses acontecimentos, as perguntas que subjazem são: i) como podemos entender a relação entre os estudos e preceitos teóricos mais minimalistas das transições políticas para a democrática e essa lacerante contradição histórica ocorrida em Honduras? ii) é possível construir um futuro democrático sobre as bases de uma história negada e esquecida? Em razão desses questionamentos, decorre a necessidade e o grande desafio de desenvolver a presente pesquisa, referente à evolução da transição política e da memória em Honduras, relacionada ao passado traumático do período 1980-1993, visto que após mais de duas décadas da passagem das ditaduras militares e golpes de Estado para a democracia, percebem-se resquícios delatórios em sua estrutura atual, social e institucional. / [en] Simultaneously with the Southern Cone transitions, the political transition to democracy in Honduras began in 1980 with a unique and atypical characteristics that distinguish it from the rest of the Latin American transitions, since it coincided with the most critical period of systematic violations human rights, including forced disappearances, murders and political repression of more than a hundred citizens belonging to leftist social movements and political opposition. Consequently, under intense social struggles, August 30 is officially recognized as the National Day of the Detained-Disappeared citizens in Honduras, where hundreds of people come together to demand that the State provide appropriate efforts to recognize that political disappeared, murdered and tortured have taken place in Honduras. In this regard, the questions that arise are: i) how can we understand the relationship between studies and the more minimalistic theoretical precepts of political transitions to democracy and this lacerating historical contradiction that occurred in Honduras? ii) is it possible to build a democratic future on the basis of a neglected and forgotten history? Due to these questions, the need and the great challenge of developing the present research, referring to the evolution of the political transition and memory in Honduras, related to the traumatic past of the 1980-1993 period, arises, since after more than two decades of the military dictatorships and coups d état for the democratic transition, there are vestiges in its current social and institutional structure.

O estudo apresenta uma análise sobre as trajetórias de Progressão Industrial em empresas/setores produtivos de países em desenvolvimento que participam de cadeias globais de formação de valor. Para isto são estudadas as cadeias produtivas do complexo têxtil-vestuário em Honduras e no Brasil. A análise usa as abordagens de Cadeias de Formação de Valor - Global Commodity Chains, assim como os modelos de Industrial Upgrading e a tipologia de Modernização Industrial. Estas abordagens julgaram-se complementares para a construção do referencial teórico do estudo. Em Honduras a pesquisa focalizou o caso das empresas maquiladoras de roupa, no Brasil estudaram-se as cadeias lideradas por empresas brasileiras que atuam no mercado nacional e internacional. “Estudos de Casos Múltiplos” foi a metodologia escolhida para a realização da pesquisa de campo, em função da necessidade de estudar casos complexos em contextos diferenciados. A reflexão final conclui que há diversos caminhos de inserção nas cadeias produtivas globais para as empresas dos países em desenvolvimento. Os avanços em termos Progressão Industrial para as empresas que participam dessas cadeias são limitados não só por aspectos tecnológicos ou de habilidades da força de trabalho local se não também pelas regulamentações do comércio internacional. Os acordos preferenciais e as barreiras comerciais são fundamentais para determinar as relações entre as empresas líderes e as subcontratadas, assim como a estrutura e a governance das cadeias produtivas globais. Mas também conclui-se que é possível uma inserção no mercado internacional menos dependente das empresas dos países centrais, que é através de cadeias lideradas por empresas dos países em desenvolvimento, utilizando para isso estratégias de inovação tecnológica, de gestão e em design e investimentos na valorização de marcas, atividades que geram maior valor agregado e permitem sua apropriação. / Abstract: The thesis is an analysis about the ways of the industrial upgrade in productive companies/sectors of developing countries which are included in global value chains. It was selected the productive chains of the textile/apparel sector in Honduras and Brazil. The analysis uses the approaches of global value chains and global commodity as well as the patterns (models?) of industrial upgrading and the typology of industrial modernization. These approaches were considered important to the theoretical references of the study. In Honduras, the research focus was on the dressing “maquilas”. In Brazil the focus was on those chains leaded by Brazilian companies acting both in the national and international market. It was chosen the multiple study case methodology to the field research due to the complexity of the cases in different environments. It was concluded that there are several ways for a developing country company to be inserted in the productive global chains. It is limited the development in terms of industrial upgrading for those companies which participate in these chains, not only by technological and manpower aspects but by the international commerce regulatory framework. The commercial barriers and the preferential agreements are fundamental to determine the relations between the leading companies and the sub-contracted ones as well as the structure and the governance of the global productive chains. Otherwise, the study shows that by using strategies as: technological and management innovation; design and investments in the valuation of trademarks, the companies from developing countries can get international markets because these strategies aggregate more value and facilitate their appropriation. Resumem: Este estudio presenta el análisis de las trayectorias de Avance Industrial en empresas y sectores productivos de países en desarrollo que participan de cadenas globales de formación de valor, para el cual se estudian las cadenas productivas del complejo industrial textil-vestido en Honduras e en Brasil. Para la construcción del marco teórico se utilizan los modelos de Cadenas de Formación de Valor - Global Commodity Chains, de Industrial Upgrading y la topología de Modernización Industrial. En Honduras se investigaron las empresas maquiladoras de ropa y en Brasil las cadenas lideradas por empresas brasileñas que actúan en el mercado nacional y en el internacional. Se escogió la metodología de “Estudios de Casos Múltiples” para realizar la investigación de campo, debido a la necesidad de analizar casos complejos en diferentes contextos. Se concluye finalmente que hay diversos caminos para la participación de las empresas de los países en desarrollo en cadenas productivas globales y que los avances en términos de Avance Industrial para estas empresas son limitados, no solo por aspectos tecnológicos o por la falta de habilidades de la fuerza laboral local, sino además por las leyes del comercio internacional. Los tratados de preferenciales y las barreras comerciales son determinantes fundamentales de las relaciones entre las empresas líderes y las subcontratadas, de la composición y de la estructura de poder en dichas cadenas productivas globales. Pero se concluye además, que hay posibilidades de participar en el mercado internacional de forma menos dependiente de las empresas de los países desarrollados y que esto puede ser alcanzado en cadenas productivas lideradas por empresas de los países en desarrollo, si estas implementan estrategias de innovación tecnológica y de gestión, con inversión en diseño y en la valorización de marcas originales pues son estas, pues son estas las actividades que generan mayor valor agregado y posibilitan su apropiación

Na América Central, em países como Honduras, El Salvador, Nicarágua e Costa Rica, tem sido descrito lesões cutâneas não ulceradas, designadas como leishmaniose cutânea não ulcerada ou atípica (LCNU) causadas por Leishmania (L.) infantum chagasi. Em Honduras, leishmaniose visceral e leishmaniose cutânea não ulcerada ou atípica são produzidas pelo mesmo agente etiológico, Leishmania (L.) infantum chagasi e ocorrem na mesma área geográfica. A LCNU é a forma clínica mais comum, afetando principalmente crianças maiores de 5 anos e adultos jovens. A lesão é definida como uma pápula, nódulo indolor, não ulcerativo, eritematoso ou da cor da pele, na presença ou ausência de halo hipopigmentado. Tendo em vista que existe uma lacuna no conhecimento do padrão de resposta imunológica tecidual da leishmaniose cutânea não ulcerada ou atípica, este trabalho visou avaliar a resposta imunológica inflamatória e regulatória in situ das lesões de pele. Foram utilizadas 20 biópsias de pele, com diagnóstico parasitológico confirmado por raspado de lesão corado por Giemsa e observado em microscópio ótico. O estudo histopatológico foi avaliado em cortes histológicos corados com hematoxilina e eosina (HE) e o padrão da resposta imune inflamatória e regulatória por meio da reação de imuno-histoquímica utilizando marcadores para linfócito T (CD4 e CD8), T regulatório (FoxP3), e antígenos intracelulares como: IL-17, TGF-beta, IL-10, IL-6 e IFN-y. As alterações histopatológicas mais significativas foram observadas na derme e caracterizadas por um infiltrado inflamatório linfohistiocitário de intensidade variável e associado à formação de granulomas epitelioides. Já as alterações histopatológicas identificadas na epiderme mostraram-se mais leves e correspondem a leve adelgaçamento, leve acantose e exocitose focal linfohistiocitária. Em 55% dos casos, o parasitismo mostrou-se discreto. A análise imuno-histoquímica das lesões cutâneas dos pacientes com LCNU mostrou no infiltrado inflamatório a presença de todos os marcadores utilizados neste estudo, em especial de linfócitos T CD8+ e CD4+, e das citocinas inflamatórias IFN-y e IL-6. A participação de células FoxP3+, TGF-beta+ e IL-10+ foi discreta, assim como das células IL-17+. Os dados mostram uma participação maior da resposta inflamatória na leishmaniose cutânea não ulcerada ou atípica, capaz de controlar o parasitismo e consequentemente a evolução do tamanho da lesão; porém, embora mais discreta, a resposta imune regulatória pode ser responsável para manter um balanço na resposta imune celular evitando danos teciduais e levando a baixa persistência parasitária no tecido, necessária para a manutenção de uma imunidade protetora e duradoura / Honduras: evaluation of the inflammatory and regulatory immune response in situ in skin lesions [dissertation]. São Paulo: \"Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo\"; 2017. In Central America, in countries such as Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, non-ulcerated skin lesions, designated as non-ulcerated or atypical cutaneous leishmaniasis (NUCL) caused by Leishmania (L.) infantum chagasi, has been reported. In Honduras, visceral leishmaniasis and non-ulcerated or atypical cutaneous leishmaniasis are caused by the same etiologic agent, Leishmania (L.) infantum chagasi and occur in the same geographical area. NUCL is the most common clinical form, affecting mainly children older than 5 years and young adults. The lesion is defined as a papule, painless nodule, non-ulcerative, erythematous or skin color, in the presence or absence of hypopigmented halo. Considering that, there is a gap in the knowledge of the tissue immune response pattern of non-ulcerated or atypical cutaneous leishmaniasis, this study aimed to evaluate the in situ inflammatory and regulatory immune response of skin lesions. Twenty skin biopsies with a confirmed parasitological diagnosis by scraping of lesion stained by Giemsa and observed under an optical microscope were used. The histopathological study was evaluated in histological sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and the inflammatory and regulatory immune response through the immunohistochemistry reaction using T lymphocyte (CD4 and CD8), regulatory T (FoxP3) markers, and intracellular antigens such as IL-17, TGF-beta, IL-10, IL-6 and IFN-y. The most significant histopathological changes were observed in the dermis, and they were characterized by a lymphohistiocytic inflammatory infiltrate of variable intensity and associated to the formation of epithelioid granulomas. On the other hand, the histopathological changes identified in the epidermis were lighter and correspond to mild thinning, mild acanthosis and focal lymphohistiocytic exocytosis. In 55% of the cases, the parasitism was discreet. The immunohistochemistry analysis of the cutaneous lesions of patients with NUCL showed in the inflammatory infiltrate the presence of all the markers used in this study, especially CD8+ and CD4+ T lymphocytes, and the inflammatory cytokines IFN-y and IL-6. The participation of FoxP3+, TGF-beta+ and IL-10+ cells was discrete, as well as IL-17+ cells. The data show a higher participation of the inflammatory response in non-ulcerated or atypical cutaneous leishmaniasis, able to control the tissue parasitism and consequently the evolution of the lesion size; however, although discreet, the regulatory immune response may be responsible for maintaining a balance in the cellular immune response avoiding tissue damage and leading to low tissue parasitic persistence necessary for the maintenance of a protective and lasting immunity

This document outlines the foundation and first year results of the H.E.L.P. Honduras organization, which was formed as a student-based, student-governed international outreach initiative at the Marriott School of Management at Brigham Young University. Specifically, in its first year the organization focused on providing microcredit and service relief to victims of Hurricane Mitch in Honduras.After studying the case of H.E.L.P. Honduras, readers should conclude that educators interested in sponsoring sustainable student-run service learning organizations at private universities must address three primary issues: the problem of student selection and turnover, the need for administrative and faculty endorsement, and the need for sustainable internally-generated funds.This document outlines how the H.E.L.P. organization has changed in the three years since its inception, and it provides tactical suggestions meant to guide all parties interested in replicating the H.E.L.P. model. It also contains suggestions on how the current teaching and implementation model could more closely match with the basic tenets of service learning.After reading the following information and reviewing related literature, readers should conclude that at private universities, such as Brigham Young University, students and faculty interested in managing student-based initiatives need to take more time to build support across their institution. They also need to improve the process of student selection, find sustainable sources of funds, and tightly ground their work in the basic tenets of service learning.

Youth gangs, so-called Maras, in Central America have for a long time been one of the major factors contributing to the great amount of organized crime and violence in the Central American countries. The citizens in this region are exposed to violence and other crimes from the gangs on a daily basis. The vast amount of teens joining but also being forced to join the gangs is due to the high levels of poverty in the countries. Becoming a member in a gang is often seen as the only option to make a living. The study focuses on three countries in Central America: El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras. The reason why the author chose these three countries is because they are the ones with the highest youth gang activity in the region as well as the ones who have faced and still are facing high levels of violence and corruption. They have all faced political, economic, and social challenges after civil wars and increasing drug trafficking in the region. The method used in the study is qualitative through an analysis of secondary sources on young women in youth gangs. The material is analyzed from a gender perspective and also power and social control theory. The maras mainly recruit teen boys, but also young girls and women. Teen girls are in some cases forced to join the gangs but many times they join the gangs as self- protection from other local maras. The young girls are used for different tasks and duties while in the gang, but also face abuse by being taken advantage of in a male dominated environment. The essay focuses on the role of young women in gangs. The research questions are: why the young girls join the gangs? What are their roles in the gangs? Are their roles differentiate to the mens?  It is important to observe how the youth gangs function, reflect the patriarchal structures of society in general which has created differences between the sexes where males are seen as superior to females, which also is evident in criminal youth gangs. The essay shows that the main reasons why young women join gangs are because they are looking for a safe environment due to lacking support and safety at home. The young women’s roles in the gang differentiate from the men in the way that they are assigned tasks according to traditional gender roles where the women are expected to do domestic tasks and excluded from some of the gang activities because of their gender.

The period of Reconstruction following the American Civil War, and its legacy, have been the subjects of long debate among historians. Scholars, though, have yet to fully explore important connections between American Reconstruction, the New South that followed, and the period of U.S. imperialism in Central America in the late nineteenth century. The storied career of Major Edward Austin Burke—a Kentucky-born Louisiana Democrat who went on to become a proponent of expansionism and imperialism in Honduras—illuminates the transnational implications of Reconstruction and its aftermath. Through careful examination of personal papers, news accounts, promotional materials, Congressional testimonies and other government records, this thesis finds the roots of Burke’s involvement in Central America in postbellum New Orleans. It demonstrates the importance of participation in Reconstruction and New South politics to the long political career of one of the most prominent U.S. imperialists in Central America in the late nineteenth century.