Depuis les années soixante dix en France, la photographie est au centre de nombreuses attentions. Apparaissent alors des expositions visant à valoriser le médium et à le légitimer en tant qu'expression artistique. Avant d'être reconnue par les institutions muséales et d'être l'objet d’une véritable politique volontariste de la part des services de l'Etat, la diffusion et la valorisation de la photographie revient aux photographes eux mêmes qui créent pour ce faire de nombreux lieux dédiés à l'exposition du médium. Dans les années quatre-vingt, l'autonomisation progressive du champ de la photographie s'accompagne de l'apparition d'une histoire et d'un discours critique. Au début des années quatre vingt dix apparaissent les premières expositions à présenter une photographie qui s'inscrit d'emblée dans les pratiques artistiques contemporaines. Le succès de cette production se concrétisera dans la décennie suivante et participera non seulement à la légitimation de la photographie mais aussi à une relecture de l'histoire de l'art.L'exposition est abordée ici en tant qu'interface entre les quatre acteurs principaux du monde de l'art: les artistes, les décideurs et les médiateurs et le public. Elle est aussi perçue comme un dispositif en ce qu'elle véhicule des discours visant à établir des normes artistiques et à faire autorité. L'étude de plus de trente ans d'expositions nous permet de suivre l'évolution des discours qui ont accompagné le médium durant son autonomisation mais aussi de percevoir les voies empruntées par un objet culturel dans ces différents processus de légitimation. / In France, since the seventies, the photography is the focus of much attentions. The appear exhibitions to enhance the medium and to legitimize it as artistic expression.Before being recognized by the museum institutions and being the object of a real politics on the part of State service, the distribution and the valuation of the photography returns to the photographers who create many places dedicated to the exhibition of the medium.In the eighties, the progressive empowerment of the field of the photography comes along with the appearance of a history and a critical discourse. At the beginning of the nineties appear the first exhibitions which present a photography similar to the contemporary artistic practices. The success of this production will become a reality in the next decade and will participate not only in the legitimization of the photography but also in the second reading of the art history.The exhibition is approached here as interface between four main actors of the world of the art: artists, makers, mediators and the public. It is also received as a “dispositif” in that it conveys discourses to establish artistic standards and to be a recognized as an authority.The study of more than thirty years of exhibitions allows us to follow the evolution of the discourses which accompanied the medium during its empowerment, but also to perceive the pathways of a cultural object in these various processes of legitimization.

Longtemps, c’est en restant isolée que la population cadienne de Louisiane est parvenue à préserver son identité culturelle. À partir du tournant des XIXe et XXe siècles cependant, un mouvement croissant d’assimilation à la culture anglo-saxonne dominante modifie profondément la situation de cette population minoritaire. Si elle permet une amélioration sensible du niveau de vie des Cadiens, cette acculturation met aussi la culture franco-louisianaise en danger. Au début du XXIe siècle, la préservation de leur héritage linguistique et culturel suppose, en raison du contexte de mondialisation croissante, une stratégie de légitimation, à la fois endogène et exogène, qui leur permette ouverture et inscription dans le monde contemporain. Cette thèse analyse trois de leurs processus de revendication identitaire mis en œuvre aujourd’hui. Le premier est l’intégration de la Louisiane au monde francophone, parce que, à la différence d’autres langues en situation minoritaire, le français cadien a la possibilité de s’insérer dans l’ensemble linguistique et culturel constitué par la francophonie, particulièrement le réseau de solidarité et de partenariats en Amérique du Nord. Le deuxième processus, facteur crucial de la légitimation recherchée, est l’institutionnalisation, telle qu’elle s’exerce, de manière complémentaire, dans l’espace public, le programme scolaire d’immersion française et l’enseignement supérieur. Le troisième processus est la conscientisation de la jeunesse, étudiante ou dans la vie active, examinée à Lafayette, cœur de la Louisiane francophone, dans cette classe d’âge potentiellement en mesure de défendre l’avenir de la langue et de la culture vernaculaires. / Owing to its isolation, the Cajun population of Louisiana long succeeded in preserving its cultural identity. By the turn of the 20th century, however, an increasing movement of assimilation into the dominant Anglo-Saxon culture had profoundly changed the situation of this minority group. This allowed a significant improvement in the Cajun standard of living, but this acculturation also endangered French Louisiana culture. At the beginning of the 21st century, the preservation of Cajun linguistic and cultural heritage implies a strategy of legitimization in a context of increasing globalization, both within and outside the population, which allows it to open itself and embed into the contemporary world. This dissertation examines three of the processes implemented in today’s Cajun demands for recognition of cultural and linguistic identity. The first process pertains to Louisiana’s integration in the French-speaking world. Unlike other minority languages, Cajun French has the potential to fit into a wider French-speaking cultural complex, particularly the North American network of solidarity and partnership. The second process, which is a critical factor in the quest for legitimization, concerns the institutionalization in the public space, French immersion curriculum and higher education. The third process is youth awareness-raising, among students or in the working world, as represented in Lafayette, at the heart of French Louisiana. It is this age class that is potentially best poised to defend the future of the vernacular language and culture.

[pt] A presente dissertação tem por objeto de estudo o processo de constituição da Ordem Terceira da Penitência de São Francisco do Recife em 1695, enquanto espaço de sociabilidade e de legitimação social dos mais prósperos homens de negócio pertencentes à comunidade mercantil emergente da praça do Recife, advindos do norte de Portugal para a capitania de Pernambuco, após o período da dominação holandesa da capitania de Pernambuco (1630-1654). Através do levantamento dos perfis biográficos dos principais dirigentes da Ordem leiga seráfica, a análise foca no processo de ascensão social desses homens considerados sem qualidade de origem e portadores de defeito mecânico, em articulação aos seus investimentos nas representações e nos seus símbolos de poder, notadamente na construção da Capela Dourada e na organização da Procissão das Cinzas, assim como às injunções políticas por eles protagonizadas, no âmbito do conflito com a nobreza da terra de Olinda, que resultaram na emancipação do Recife e na instalação da Câmara dos vereadores da nova vila, cerne do poder local no âmbito da América portuguesa. / [en] This dissertation is a study of the process by which the Third Order of the Penitents of St Francis in Recife was constituted in 1695, providing a space for the social legitimation of the more prosperous homens de negócio (traders), many of whom came from the north of Portugal, in the mercantile community which emerged in Recife in the period following the Dutch occupation of the captaincy of Pernambuco (1630-1654). Through a survey of the biographies of the principal leaders of the lay Order of Franciscans, the analysis focuses on the upward social mobility of men who were considered to be sem qualidade de origem (of poor background) and with defeito mecânico (manual labourers), their investment in symbols of power like the Capela Dourada and the Ash Wednesday Procession, and their participation the political conflicts with the nobreza da terra (landed nobility) of Olinda, which led to the autonomy of Recife and the establishment of the Câmara (municipal council) of the new vila (town), the locus of local power in Portuguese America.

A l’heure où d’aucuns déplorent la perte d’autorité à l’école, l’évocation d’un âge d’or de l’autorité des professeurs est récurrente. Tout se passe comme si cette autorité avait été évidente jusqu’à la fin du XIXe siècle au point de n’avoir jamais eu à être légitimée pour exister. C’est à ce mythe que s’intéresse cette thèse. Aborder pareille question justifiait un effort de compréhension pour un passé qui, bien qu’il ne nous concerne plus, n’en reste pas moins la base sur laquelle, ou contre laquelle, le présent s’est construit. En d’autres termes, il s’agissait de remonter aux sources de l’autorité pouvant être invoquées comme éléments de légitimation. C’est pourquoi la période étudiée est une « longue durée » s’étendant de l’Antiquité jusqu’à l’aube de la IIIe République.Répondant à la question de recherche : « Sur quelles raisons s’est étayée la légitimité de l’autorité des maîtres et sur quels moyens externes cette autorité s’est-elle appuyée ? », cette thèse démontre que l’autorité des maîtres d’école primaire a, au contraire de ce qui est souvent affirmé, nécessité, de tous temps, des discours de légitimation de la part des théoriciens de l’éducation qu’ils soient religieux, philosophes ou politiques. En effet, en s’appuyant sur une typologie des formes de légitimation de l’autorité, inspirée de celle qui avait été établie par Max Weber, elle met non seulement en évidence des éléments de légitimation de l’autorité pédagogique propres à certaines périodes historiques mais elle fait également la lumière sur l’existence de trois invariants de cette légitimation : le patriarcalisme, le charisme de fonction et la codification morale. / At a time when some people lament the loss of authority in schools, the evocation of a golden age of teachers’ authority is recurrent. Everything happens as though this authority had been obvious up to the end of the 19th century so much so that it never had to be legitimated in order to exist. This doctoral thesis focuses on this myth. Tackling such a question justified an effort of comprehension for a past that, although it doesn’t concern us anymore, remains the basis on which or against which the present was built. In other words, it was a matter of returning to the sources of authority that could be put forward as the elements for legitimization. That’s why the studied period is a “long-spanning period” spreading from the Antiquity to the dawn of the 3rd Republic. Answering to the research question: “On what grounds did the legitimacy of the teachers’ authority rest and on what external means did it rely?”, this doctoral thesis demonstrates that, unlike what is often said, the authority of primary school teachers has required speeches of legitimization from the theoreticians of education whether they were religious, philosophical or political. Indeed, relying on the forms of legitimized authority, inspired by the one that was established by Max Weber, this thesis not only reveals the elements of legitimization that are characteristic of historical periods but it also enlightens the existence of three constancies for this legitimization: patriarchalism, charisma of the profession and moral codification.

L’ouvrage souhaite apporter des clarifications et des définitions à propos des artistes évoluant dans les cabarets toulousains. L’objectif est de détecter les « processus de légitimation » que ceux-ci mettent en oeuvre afin d’asseoir leur légitimité, sociale, culturelle, familiale, artistique, professionnelle. Couronnés d’une aura de mystère de par leur statut de travailleur, leur mode de vie, leur emploi du temps, leurs rites et codes, leur organisation en réseaux, leurs cercles sociaux et leurs carrières atypiques, le sens commun aurait tendance à les étiqueter de « particuliers », « différents », « bohêmes », etc. Ainsi, en partant de préjugés et de stéréotypes dominants, on peut se poser la question de la manière dont ces artistes de music-hall légitiment leurs activités, leur statut par rapport aux autres arts, mais surtout, comment réussissent-ils à exporter leur légitimité dans leurs autres sphères relationnelles. L’hypothèse étant que la légitimité des artistes de cabaret toulousains n’est pas acquise ni assurée en tous milieux.Il s’agit également d’évaluer la légitimité culturelle dans le domaine des arts de ce groupe d’artistes professionnels composant le spectacle vivant. En effet, quelle est donc leur place dans la hiérarchie des arts, au regard d’un milieu de l’art se révélant structuré par des conflits de valeurs ? En se basant, entre autre, sur le principe des variations intra-individuelles, le débat discutera de la « démocratie culturelle » et des hiérarchies de valeurs culturelles, révélant la légitimité des « arts du divertissement ».Une enquête ethnosociologique où le chercheur est impliqué sur le terrain, visant à rendre compte des préoccupations sociales, telles qu’elles sont vécues dans le quotidien. / This work wants to bring definitions and clarifications about the artists working in the cabarets of Toulouse. In order to discern the “processes of legitimization” the artists struggle to assert their social, cultural, artistic, professional legitimacy.Due to the mystery which floats around these workers’ status, their way of life, their timetable, their rituals and codes, their organization in networks, their social circles and their atypical careers, people have a tendency to put the label of “particular”, “different”, “bohemian” on them. So, on the basis of the prejudices and on the predominant stereotypes, we can wonder how these artists of music-hall can justify their activities, their status in comparison with the order arts and especially how they succeed in exporting their legitimacy in other relational spheres. The hypothesis shows that the legitimacy of the artists of the cabaret in Toulouse is neither acquired nor assured in any circles.It is also a question of assessing the cultural legitimacy of this group among the other arts. These professional artists propose shows in live and we can wonder what place they have in the hierarchy of art, noticing that arts turned out to be structured by conflicts of values. Based on the principle of intra-individual variations, we can debate about “Cultural Democracy” and the hierarchies of cultural values, and so reveal the legitimacy of “the arts of entertainment”.This work is an ethnosociological survey, in which the researcher is involved in, and he denounces the social problems he experiences in his daily life.

Diploma thesis " and Killings Abroad" is dedicated to depiction of employment of armed unmanned aerial administration's officials. The thesis is based on constructivist conception of world affairs isn't employed in order to describe objective realit Obama administration's of "us" and "them", that has proved to be very flexible in this study, underpins legitimization of

The thesis "The legitimization of non-intervention in Syria in the U.S. discourse: A discourse analysis of the selected Western speeches between 2011 and 2014" examines the discourse of the President of the United States Barack Obama concerning the Syrian crisis. It focuses on the reasoning that Obama used to explain or even justify his non- interventional approach regarding the crisis in Syria between the years 2011 and 2014. The thesis works with the hypothesis that the United States while justifying non-intervention in Syria, have avoided the geopolitical background of a split in the international community regarding possible solutions to the Syrian conflict. In legitimizing military "non- intervention" they chose another strategy, such as the 'downplaying' strategy, gradually setting out increasingly distant criteria and mitigating emerging threats. To accomplish the established goals the paper used the Narrative Conceptualization Analysis (NCA), as introduced by Shaul Shenhav, that examines the narrative concept through a signified story that consists of at least two events. The NCA largely confirmed the hypothesis. Obama's discourse lacked the geopolitical background. Obama mitigated the threats and set out the increasingly distant criteria, e.g. he claimed the regime of Bashar al-Assad would fall on...

The gravity of the problem of drug trafficking in Mexico became clearly visible in the 1990s in connection with the political changes in the country and geopolitical transformations in the region. It became obvious that the drug cartels formed a key part of the system and of the everyday reality. Felipe Calderón, a new president from the PAN party elected in the disputed election of 2006, chose to dedicate his presidency to the fight against organized crime in order to regain legitimacy lost in the electoral process. His open confrontation strategy brought success at first, however, the praise it received was soon replaced by criticism. Negative consequences such as human rights abuses, militarization and ignorance of other problems of the society overcame any possible successes of the military campaign. During the six years of his presidency Calderón strived to obtain support for his strategy by using various legitimization strategies. The aim of the author of this thesis is to introduce some of the existing methods and to show how Mexico's Drug War was legitimized in the context of the strategies within the "call to arms" genre. The authors of these discourses tend to use four generic elements - appeals to a legitimate power source, appeals to history, construction of the "evil other" and calls for unity...

The purpose of this study is to investigate the constructed vision of social reality that the Sweden Democrats define and thus defend and legitimizes through their climate and environmental policy. With a focus on the power relations that are constitutive of the Sweden Democrats' definition of social reality, the intention is to clarify the Sweden Democrats' position on the issue of climate change and to make visible what underlies their actions concerning the ratification of the Paris Agreement. To achieve the purpose, critical discourse analysis is used as a method where political documents concerning the Sweden Democrats' climate, environment, and energy policy during the period 2018-2021 constitute the empirical material. The results show that the Sweden Democrats' definition of climate change is both ambiguous and ambivalent, where Sweden's self-image and Swedish interests are prioritized over climate measures. The result also shows that the Sweden Democrats' definition of climate change is constituted by underlying power relations to preserve the power of the nation-state and the subordinate position of developing countries. One conclusion that can be drawn is to reduce the Sweden Democrats to just being climate change deniers is to simplify because their attitude to climate change is characterized by ambivalence and self-interest rather than skepticism and denial. Another conclusion is that the Sweden Democrats' attitude to climate change is more about defending and preserving existing power relations and less about questioning the existence of climate change. A third conclusion that can be drawn is that the Sweden Democrats' action regarding the Paris Agreement is more about opposing a social change that entails increased equality and about legitimizing the nation state's continued relevance in a globalized world, and less about opposing the content and implementation of the Paris Agreement.

Att uppnå balans är en viktig aspekt inom hållbarhetsredovisning, trots detta är det inte ovanligt att företagens hållbarhetsrapporter är i en obalans. Det har visat sig vara en överrepresentation av positiva händelser i dessa rapporter. Tidigare forskning har visat att legitimitetsteori ligger till grund för upprättandet av en hållbarhetsrapport och förklarar varför företag väljer att presentera negativa händelser. Det finns incitament för företag att presentera negativa händelser, då det skapar legitimitet gentemot företagens intressenter. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka vilken typ av negativa händelser som presenteras och hur företag presenterar negativa händelser. Genom en kvalitativ innehållsanalys sker en branschjämförelse för att identifiera eventuella mönster och skillnader. Det empiriska materialet består av en kvalitativ innehållsanalys som tillämpats på nio företag inom branscherna dagligvaruhandel, IT-och telekom och byggbranschen. Hållbarhetsrapporter från samtliga bolag har analyserats och sedan har all data kodats med hjälp av ett kodningsschema där strategier och kategorier har identifierats. Utformning av kodningsschemat präglades av tidigare forskning och lagtext där tidigare definierade legitimeringsstrategier och kategorier identifierats. Strategierna som identifierats från tidigare forskning var marginalisering, avskiljande, rationalisering, korrigerande åtgärder samt återge fakta. Resultatet påvisar att samtliga strategier framtagna från tidigare forskning kunde identifieras i studiens empiriska material. Där vissa strategier förekom mer frekvent än andra. Det var även möjligt att urskilja mönster inom och mellan branscherna, framför allt inom dagligvaruhandeln fanns ett samförstånd i hur negativa händelser presenteras och vilket område dessa berörde. De typer av negativa händelser som presenterades har även identifierats som småskaliga händelser. / Balance plays a key role in sustainability reporting, despite this it has been shown that there is an overrepresentation of the positive aspects. This indicates an imbalance in sustainability reporting. The legitimacy theory is the foundation in sustainability reporting and explains why companies choose to disclose. It has been shown that incentive to disclose negative aspects exists, because it provides the companies with legitimacy towards stakeholders. The purpose of this study was to examine which type of negative events companies choose to disclose and how companies choose to disclose information concerning negative events. Further the aim was to do an industry comparison, in order to identify patterns and differences. A qualitative content analysis was conducted and applied to nine companies, in the food industry, IT &- telecom and the construction industry. The sustainability reports from all the companies, got analyzed and then coded with the help of a coding scheme. The coding scheme helped identify the companies strategies and categories of the negative events. The coding scheme was conducted with previous research and laws as a base. The results show that all the strategies from earlier research could be identified, and those strategies were marginalization, authorization, indicating facts, rationalizing and corrective action. Some strategies occurred more frequently than others. Some patterns were identified, both within the industries and between the industries. Especially in the food industry, there was a consensus on how the negative events were to be presented and within which area. Further, the result showed that the negative events that were presented, could be identified as insignificant events.