Electronic mail has become the medium of choice in most organizations because of some of its special features. E-mail, like all computer-mediated communication, changes the way we interact and has therefore an impact on working conditions, sometimes in a negative direction. Research findings so far show divergent opinions about how e-mail has influenced work. The main purpose of this thesis is to understand and explain if and why there are possible negative outcomes of e-mail usage in organizations, and to use the findings to develop a guiding model for organizational e-mail use. In order to meet the goals set, earlier research in the area Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) that focus on the effects on the social system was used. This research is mainly based on theories of media choice and communication theories, which offer a valuable contribution for understanding why e-mail might be used in improper ways in organizations. Empirical data was collected in several steps using different techniques. The target group was managers in different kinds of organizations, but also administrative staff and teachers. The result shows that there are several reasons why e-mail usage might be a problem in organizations like expectations of fast feedback and being constantly updated, post absence backlog, too much information in e-mail, too many incoming e-mails, irrelevant information, decreased personal contact, a more sedentary work environment and e-mail splitting the respondents' time. The contribution of this thesis is that possible negative aspects of e-mail use in organizations are due to a combination of factors. To overcome any organizational disadvantages of e-mail it is vital to consider the e-mail users' behaviors, feelings and attitudes in a specific organizational context in combination with e-mail's special features. A number of guidelines are presented to help organizations and individuals make e-mail use more efficient and satisfying.

This thesis deals with a comprehensive overview of the negative effects of transport on the environment, their opportunities and reducing the legislative restrictions. Then their own proposals for improving the environment in direct connection with road transport and efforts to reduce accidents on the road. Based on the elaboration of this thesis were collected and sorted information on the operation of the negative effects of road transport on the environment in order to raise awareness of the impact of activities related to road transport.

O reconhecimento, pelos tribunais, da possibilidade de as partes escolherem livremente o foro que deverá decidir eventual litígio consiste em um tema de estudo do direito internacional privado que gera intensas discussões. Embora seja possível se argumentar que, com base no princípio da autonomia da vontade, seja plenamente aceitável a fixação da competência do tribunal a partir da vontade das partes, a jurisprudência brasileira, de maneira não uniforme, ainda reluta em aceitar esse fato. Entende-se que não seria possível às partes afastar a atuação do judiciário brasileiro em hipótese de competência concorrente. O estudo do direito convencional e regional (União Européia e Mercosul) acerca da matéria evidencia uma tendência em favor do reconhecimento da possibilidade de escolha de foro estrangeiro pelos contratantes. Neste contexto, a presente dissertação pretende demonstrar que as justificativas jurídicas que embasam a denegação à eleição de foro estrangeiro à luz do ordenamento brasileiro não se sustentam, e que se faz necessário o reconhecimento, pelo país, da possibilidade de escolha pelos contratantes do tribunal competente para decidir a causa. / The courts acceptance of the freedom of the parties in choosing the court under which they will seek to resolve any possible litigation is a controversial matter of international private law. Although it is possible to state that the choice of court based on the free will principle is entirely legitimate, the Brazilian case law, even if not unanimously, still resists accepting this fact. It is understood that the contracting parties could not fail to resort to the Brazilian courts in the event of concurring jurisdiction. The study of contractual and regional law (European Union and Mercosur) on this matter shows a tendency towards the acceptance of choice of court by the contracting parties. In this context, the aim of this dissertation is to demonstrate the lack of legal reasons for denying the choice of court in light of the Brazilian legal system, as well as that Brazil should accept the discretion of the contracting parties in choosing the court under which they want to litigate their case.

O reconhecimento, pelos tribunais, da possibilidade de as partes escolherem livremente o foro que deverá decidir eventual litígio consiste em um tema de estudo do direito internacional privado que gera intensas discussões. Embora seja possível se argumentar que, com base no princípio da autonomia da vontade, seja plenamente aceitável a fixação da competência do tribunal a partir da vontade das partes, a jurisprudência brasileira, de maneira não uniforme, ainda reluta em aceitar esse fato. Entende-se que não seria possível às partes afastar a atuação do judiciário brasileiro em hipótese de competência concorrente. O estudo do direito convencional e regional (União Européia e Mercosul) acerca da matéria evidencia uma tendência em favor do reconhecimento da possibilidade de escolha de foro estrangeiro pelos contratantes. Neste contexto, a presente dissertação pretende demonstrar que as justificativas jurídicas que embasam a denegação à eleição de foro estrangeiro à luz do ordenamento brasileiro não se sustentam, e que se faz necessário o reconhecimento, pelo país, da possibilidade de escolha pelos contratantes do tribunal competente para decidir a causa. / The courts acceptance of the freedom of the parties in choosing the court under which they will seek to resolve any possible litigation is a controversial matter of international private law. Although it is possible to state that the choice of court based on the free will principle is entirely legitimate, the Brazilian case law, even if not unanimously, still resists accepting this fact. It is understood that the contracting parties could not fail to resort to the Brazilian courts in the event of concurring jurisdiction. The study of contractual and regional law (European Union and Mercosur) on this matter shows a tendency towards the acceptance of choice of court by the contracting parties. In this context, the aim of this dissertation is to demonstrate the lack of legal reasons for denying the choice of court in light of the Brazilian legal system, as well as that Brazil should accept the discretion of the contracting parties in choosing the court under which they want to litigate their case.

In this study, we tested the long-term and negative effects of microcystin-producing cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa from Vietnam on Daphnia magna under the laboratory conditions. The test organisms were fed with mixtures of green alga Scenedesmus armatus. and toxic M. aeruginosa at different ratios (10% Microcystis + 90% Scenedesmus, 50% Microcystis + 50% Scenedesmus, 100% Microcystis, and 100% Scenedesmus) for over a period of 21 days. The life history traits of the organisms such as, survival, maturation, fecundity were daily recorded. Besides, the intrinsic population rate of D. magna in each treatment was also calculated based on the survivorship, the reproductive age and the clutch size of the animals. The results showed that survival, maturation and reproduction of the D. magna fed with 10, 50 and 100% M. aeruginosa was impaired. Additionally, the intrinsic population rate of the exposed D. magna was lower than that of the control. This study evidenced the adverse effects of toxic M. aeruginosa on both the individual and intrinsic population levels of D. magna. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the chronically detrimental impacts of toxic M. aeruginosa isolated from Vietnam on D. magna and contributed the scientific information on the severe influences of toxic cyanobacteria world wide. / Trong bài viết này, chúng tôi nghiên cứu ảnh hưởng xấu mãn tính của loài vi khuẩn lam Microcystis aeruginosa có khả năng sản sinh độc tố microcysin từ Việt Nam lên Daphnia magna trong điều kiện phòng thí nghiệm. Sinh vật thí nghiệm được cho ăn với hỗn hợp tảo lục Scenedesmus armatus và M. aeruginosa có độc ở các tỷ lệ khác nhau (10% Microcystis + 90% Scenedesmus, 50% Microcystis + 50% Scenedesmus, 100% Microcystis, và 100% Scenedesmus) trong thời gian 21 ngày. Các đặc điểm vòng đời của sinh vật bao gồm sức sống, sự thành thục, sức sinh sản được theo dõi hàng ngày. Bên cạnh đó, tỷ lệ phát triển quần thể của D. magna trong từng lô thí nghiệm cũng được tính toán dựa vào sức sống, tuổi sinh sản và kích cỡ sinh sản của sinh vật. Kết quả cho thấy, sức sống, tuổi thành thục và sự sinh sản của D. magna cho ăn với 10, 50 và 100% M. aeruginosa bị ảnh hưởng xấu. Bên cạnh đó, tỷ lệ phát triển quần thể của D. magna trong lô phơi nhiễm thấp hơn so với đối chứng. Nghiên cứu này chứng minh ảnh hưởng xấu của M. aeruginosa có độc lên cả hai mức độ cá thể và quần thể của D. magna. Theo hiểu biết của chúng tôi, đây là báo cáo đầu tiên về ảnh hưởng xấu mãn tính của M. aeruginosa có độc phân lập từ Việt Nam lên D. magna and đóng góp thêm thông tin khoa học cho những ảnh hưởng nghiêm trọng của vi khuẩn lam có độc trên khắp thế giới.

[pt] Enquanto a maioria da pesquisa relata efeitos positivos de gamificação, o foco em seus efeitos adversos é consideravelmente menor. Tendo isso em mente, conduzimos um mapeamento sistemático dos efeitos negativos de elementos de game design em sistemas de aprendizado/educação. O estudo revelou 77 papers reportando efeitos não desejados de game design. Descobrimos que badges, competição, leaderboards e pontos são os elementos de game design mais encontrados sendo declarados como causadores de efeitos adversos. Os efeitos mais citados foram falta de efeito, falta de entendimento, irrelevância, problemas motivacionais e performance piorada. Então usamos os dados recolhidos para criar 7 diretrizes sobre alguns dos efeitos negativos encontrados e como lidar com eles. A dissertação pode ajudar designers de gamificação a tomarem decisões mais bem informadas quando selecionando elementos de game design a serem encontrados em sistemas de educação/aprendizado, criando percepção de efeitos adversos. / [en] While most research shows positive effects of gamification, the focus on its adverse effects is considerably smaller. Having this in mind, we conducted a systematic mapping study of the negative effects of game design elements on education/learning systems. The study revealed 77 papers reporting undesired effects of game design elements. We found that badges, competitions, leaderboards, and points are the game design elements most often reported as causing negative effects. The most cited negative effects were lack of effect, lack of understanding, irrelevance, motivational issues, and worsened performance. The ethical issue of cheating was also often reported. Then we used the data gathered to create 7 guidelines about some of the negative effects found and how to deal with those. This dissertation can help gamification designers make more informed decisions when selecting game design elements to be included in education/learning systems, raising awareness on potential negative effects.

Digitization is today an integrated part of the Swedish primary school. For the school to remain free and equal for the students, laptops and tablets are given out as loans to students. The school should also reflect society at large, and Sweden is a country where digitization is a fact. All subjects in school must be combined with digitization. The purpose of the essay is to summarize research findings in this area and analyze the result based on the questions and evaluate the result. The outcome of our analysis shows that digitalization have both positive and negative effects but the quality of the outcome also depends on other factors such as teacher readiness and awareness on digitalization. Something that we found with the bachelor thesis is that teachers need to be knowledgeable in digitization to be able to implement this. The teachers are not trained and they do not spend enough time on the training for this. Additionally, students benefit differently based on their experiences. Some benefit because they have a disability that makes it easier for them to handle tablets than to type with a pencil. Others tend to be disadvantaged as technology moves too quickly and find it easy and get bored. Others play because they get coins to spend on the games themselves and do not challenge themselves and thus do not understand the essence of digitization.

In this study, we tested the long-term and negative effects of microcystin-producing cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa from Vietnam on Daphnia magna under the laboratory conditions. The test organisms were fed with mixtures of green alga Scenedesmus armatus. and toxic M. aeruginosa at different ratios (10% Microcystis + 90% Scenedesmus, 50% Microcystis + 50% Scenedesmus, 100% Microcystis, and 100% Scenedesmus) for over a period of 21 days. The life history traits of the organisms such as, survival, maturation, fecundity were daily recorded. Besides, the intrinsic population rate of D. magna in each treatment was also calculated based on the survivorship, the reproductive age and the clutch size of the animals. The results showed that survival, maturation and reproduction of the D. magna fed with 10, 50 and 100% M. aeruginosa was impaired. Additionally, the intrinsic population rate of the exposed D. magna was lower than that of the control. This study evidenced the adverse effects of toxic M. aeruginosa on both the individual and intrinsic population levels of D. magna. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the chronically detrimental impacts of toxic M. aeruginosa isolated from Vietnam on D. magna and contributed the scientific information on the severe influences of toxic cyanobacteria world wide. / Trong bài viết này, chúng tôi nghiên cứu ảnh hưởng xấu mãn tính của loài vi khuẩn lam Microcystis aeruginosa có khả năng sản sinh độc tố microcysin từ Việt Nam lên Daphnia magna trong điều kiện phòng thí nghiệm. Sinh vật thí nghiệm được cho ăn với hỗn hợp tảo lục Scenedesmus armatus và M. aeruginosa có độc ở các tỷ lệ khác nhau (10% Microcystis + 90% Scenedesmus, 50% Microcystis + 50% Scenedesmus, 100% Microcystis, và 100% Scenedesmus) trong thời gian 21 ngày. Các đặc điểm vòng đời của sinh vật bao gồm sức sống, sự thành thục, sức sinh sản được theo dõi hàng ngày. Bên cạnh đó, tỷ lệ phát triển quần thể của D. magna trong từng lô thí nghiệm cũng được tính toán dựa vào sức sống, tuổi sinh sản và kích cỡ sinh sản của sinh vật. Kết quả cho thấy, sức sống, tuổi thành thục và sự sinh sản của D. magna cho ăn với 10, 50 và 100% M. aeruginosa bị ảnh hưởng xấu. Bên cạnh đó, tỷ lệ phát triển quần thể của D. magna trong lô phơi nhiễm thấp hơn so với đối chứng. Nghiên cứu này chứng minh ảnh hưởng xấu của M. aeruginosa có độc lên cả hai mức độ cá thể và quần thể của D. magna. Theo hiểu biết của chúng tôi, đây là báo cáo đầu tiên về ảnh hưởng xấu mãn tính của M. aeruginosa có độc phân lập từ Việt Nam lên D. magna and đóng góp thêm thông tin khoa học cho những ảnh hưởng nghiêm trọng của vi khuẩn lam có độc trên khắp thế giới.

Internet-based cognitive behavior therapy (ICBT) has the potential of providing many patients with an effective form of psychological treatment. However, despite helping to improve mental health and well-being, far from everyone seem to benefit. In some cases, negative effects may also emerge. The overall aim of the present thesis was to establish the occurrence and characteristics of such incidents in ICBT using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. Study I determined deterioration, non-response, and adverse and unwanted events in a sample of 133 patients undergoing ICBT for social anxiety disorder. The results indicated that up to 6.8% fared worse during the treatment period, depending on the self-report measure and time point, as determined using the Reliable Change Index (RCI), while the non-response rate was between 29.3 to 86.5% at post treatment assessment, and 12.9% experienced other negative effects. Study II investigated the responses to open-ended questions on adverse and unwanted events among 556 patients in four separate clinical trials of ICBT; social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, major depressive disorder, and procrastination. In total, 9.3% reported negative effects, with a qualitative content analysis revealing two categories and four subcategories; patient-related, i.e., gaining insight and experiencing new symptoms, and treatment-related, i.e., difficulties applying the treatment interventions and problems related to the treatment format. Study III explored the number of patients achieving reliable deterioration, as determined using the RCI on the individual raw scores of 2866 patients from 29 clinical trials of ICBT. The results showed that the deterioration rate was higher among patients in a control condition, 17.4%, in comparison to treatment, 5.8%. Predictors were related to decreased odds of deterioration for patients receiving treatment; clinical severity at pre treatment assessment, being in a relationship, having a university degree, and being older. As for the control condition, only clinical severity at pre treatment assessment was associated with decreased odds of deterioration. Study IV examined a newly developed self-report measure for monitoring and reporting adverse and unwanted events, the Negative Effects Questionnaire. The results suggested a six-factor solution with 32 items; symptoms, quality, dependency, stigma, hopelessness, and failure. One-third of the patients reported experiencing unpleasant memories, stress, and anxiety, with novel symptoms and a lack of quality in the treatment and therapeutic relationship having the greatest negative impact. The general finding of the present thesis is that negative effects do occur in ICBT and that they are characterized by deterioration, non-response, and adverse and unwanted events, similar to psychological treatments delivered face-to-face. Researchers and clinicians in ICBT are recommended to monitor and report negative effects to prevent a negative treatment trend and further the understanding of what might contribute to their incidents. Future research should investigate the relationship between negative effects and treatment outcome, especially at follow-up, to examine if they are transient or enduring. Also, interviews could be conducted with those achieving reliable deterioration to explore if and how it is experienced by the patients and to see if it is attributed to the treatment interventions or other circumstances. / Internetbaserad kognitiv beteendeterapi (IKBT) har goda förutsättningar att kunna bli en form av psykologisk behandling som på ett effektivt sätt hjälper patienter med att hantera sin psykiska ohälsa och förbättra sitt välmående. Trots detta är det dock långtifrån alla som tycks bli bättre. För en del kan det till och med resultera i negativa effekter. Det övergripande syftet med denna avhandling har således varit att undersöka förekomsten av sådana fall och hur dessa uttrycks, såväl med kvantitativa som kvalitativa metoder. Studie I fastställde andelen försämrade, oförändrade samt andra ogynnsamma eller oönskade händelser bland 133 personer som behandlades med IKBT för social ångest. Resultatet visade att uppemot 6,8 % försämrades under sin behandlingsperiod beroende på vilket självskattningsformulär respektive tidpunkt som studerades, beräknat enligt metoden Reliable Change Index (RCI). Likaså var 29,3 % till 86,5 % oförändrade vid eftermätningen samt att 12,9 % rapporterade andra former av negativa effekter. Studie II undersökte svaren på öppna frågor som gällde ogynnsamma eller oönskade händelser bland 556 patienter i fyra olika kliniska studier med IKBT; social ångest, paniksyndrom, egentlig depressionsepisod och prokrastinering. Totalt sett rapporterade 9,3 % att de hade erfarit negativa effekter, vilka analyserades med hjälp av kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Två övergripande kategorier och fyra subkategorier framkom; patientrelaterade, som ökad insikt respektive nya symptom, samt behandlingsrelaterade, som svårigheter att implementera behandlingsinterventionerna respektive problem med behandlingsformatet. Studie III utrönte andelen patienter som försämrades i enlighet med RCI, baserat på insamlad rådata från 2866 personer i 29 olika kliniska studier med IKBT. Resultatet visade att försämring var mer förekommande hos de som var i en kontrollgrupp, 17,4 %, jämfört med de som fick behandling, 5,8 %. Bland de som genomgick behandling existerade det även ett par prediktorer som innebar lägre odds för försämring; större svårigheter vid förmätningen, att befinna sig i en relation, att ha en universitetsutbildning respektive att vara äldre. För de som var i en kontrollgrupp var enbart större svårigheter vid förmätningen relaterat till lägre odds för försämring. Studie IV testade ett nykonstruerat självskattningsformulär; Negative Effects Questionnaire. Resultatet visade på en faktorlösning med sex faktorer och 32 påståenden; symptom, kvalitet, beroende, stigma, hopplöshet respektive misslyckande. En tredjedel av personerna svarade att de hade upplevt obehagliga minnen, stress och ångest, samtidigt som nya symptom och bristande kvalitet i både behandlingen respektive den terapeutiska relationen hade haft störst negativ inverkan på dem. Den generella slutsatsen av denna avhandling är således att negativa effekter förekommer i IKBT och att de kännetecknas av försämring, ett oförändrat tillstånd samt andra ogynnsamma eller oönskade händelser, något som liknar tidigare forskning av psykologisk behandling som bedrivs ansikte-mot-ansikte. Forskare och behandlare i IKBT rekommenderas att övervaka och rapportera negativa effekter i syfte att förhindra en negativ utveckling i behandlingen samt för att öka kunskapen om vad som kan bidra till deras förekomst. Framtida forskning bör undersöka relationen mellan negativa effekter och behandlingsutfall utifrån längre tidsperspektiv för att se om dess påverkan är övergående eller ihållande. Vidare kan till exempel intervjuer utföras med de patienter som har försämrats för att ta reda på om och hur det uppfattas samt huruvida det har förorsakats av behandlingen eller andra omständigheter. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: In press.</p>

The purpose of this study was to determine why South African long-distance runners start and continue to run long distances, what perceived psychological benefits and negative effects they experience as a result of their involvement in the sport, and what thoughts and emotions are associated with the runner's high. Questionnaires were sent to 2 000 1992 Two Oceans Marathon participants and 777 responded. Results show that South African long-distance runners start running chiefly for physical fitness and health reasons, and continue for these reasons as well as psychological benefit reasons. As a result of their involvement in the sport, they experience psychological benefits such as a positive mood, positive self-image and positive mental outlook. When unable to run, these benefits are reversed. They also experience negative effects such as relationship problems because of long-distance running. Many thoughts and emotions are associated with the runner's high, but most define it as an euphoric feeling / Art History, Visual Arts & Musicology / M.A. (Psychology)