The first chapter analizes conditional assistance programs. They generate conflicting relationships between international financial institutions (IFIs) and member countries. The experience of IFIs with conditionality in the 1990s led them to allow countries more latitude in the design of their reform programs. A reformist government does not need conditionality and it is useless if it does not want to reform. A government that faces opposition may use conditionality and the help of pro-reform lobbies as a lever to counteract anti-reform groups and succeed in implementing reforms. The second chapter analizes economies saddled with taxes and regulations. I consider an economy in which many taxes, subsidies, and other distortionary restrictions are in place simultaneously. If I start from an inefficient laissez-faire equilibrium because of some domestic distortion, a small trade tax or subsidy can yield a first-order welfare improvement, even if the instrument itself creates distortions of its own. This may result in "welfare paradoxes". The purpose of the chapter is to quantify the welfare effects of changes in tax rates in a small open economy. I conduct the simulation in the context of an intertemporal utility maximization framework. I apply numerical methods to the model developed by Karayalcin. I introduce changes in the tax rates and quantify both the impact on welfare, consumption and foreign assets, and the path to the new steady-state values. The third chapter studies the role of stock markets and adjustment costs in the international transmission of supply shocks. The analysis of the transmission of a positive supply shock that originates in one of the countries shows that on impact the shock leads to an inmediate stock market boom enjoying the technological advance, while the other country suffers from depress stock market prices as demand for its equity declines. A period of adjustment begins culminating in a steady state capital and output level that is identical to the one before the shock. The the capital stock of one country undergoes a non-monotonic adjustment. The model is tested with plausible values of the variables and the numeric results confirm the predictions of the theory.

[pt] Nesse artigo, apresentamos um modelo Novo Keynesiano de economia aberta com dois países, taxação distorciva e gasto governamental estocástico. Nessa modelagem comparamos, em uma base de bem-estar, diferentes regras monetária e fiscal com uma referência constituída pelo equilíbrio cooperativo da política de Ramsey. / [en] In this paper, we present a New Keynesian two-country open economy model featuring distortionary taxation and stochastic government spending. Within this modeling we compare, in a welfare-sense, different fiscal and monetary rules with a benchmark constituted by a cooperative Ramseypolicy equilibrium.

[pt] E se o risco fiscal não for desprezível? O Banco Central poderia continuar efetivamente trazendo a inflação para a meta ao ignorar o risco de default? Para responder a essas questões, propomos um modelo DSGE de pequena economia aberta com limite fiscal endógeno, onde o governo pode dar calote em seus títulos domésticos, e a autoridade monetária pode responder por isso. Avaliamos a dinâmica sob duas regras de decisão do Banco Central: quando (i) rastreia erroneamente esse risco e (ii) rastreia perfeitamente o risco de inadimplência. O modelo é calibrado com base em dados brasileiros, dado que a recente deterioração orçamentária do país faz dele um caso ideal a ser estudado. Constatamos que inflação alta e moeda desvalorizada coexistem com uma alta taxa de juros quando a autoridade monetária não leva em conta integralmente o risco de inadimplência. Quanto maior a probabilidade de default, maiores as diferenças entre os efeitos dos dois tipos de regras de política que analisamos. Para uma banqueira central restaurar a meta de inflação, ela deve incorporar perfeitamente toda a dinâmica do risco de inadimplência em sua regra de decisão. Além disso, nosso modelo gera um prêmio endógeno entre as taxas de juros dos países devido às diferenças no risco de default soberano. / [en] What if the fiscal risk is not negligible? Could the Central Bank continue effectively bringing inflation to the target when it ignores the default risk? To address those questions, we propose a small open economy DSGE model with an endogenous fiscal limit, where the government can default on its domestic bonds, and monetary authority may account for that. We evaluate dynamics under two different Central Bank decision rules: when (i) it wrongly tracks that risk, and (ii) it perfectly tracks default risk. The model is calibrated based on Brazilian data, as its recent budgetary deterioration makes the country an ideal case to be studied. We find that high inflation and depreciated currency coexist with a high interest rate when the monetary authority does not fully account for the default risk. The higher the default probability, the greater the differences across the effects of the two types of policy rules that we analyzed. For a central banker to restore the inflation target, she must fully track default risk in its decision rule. In addition, our model generates an endogenous premium across countries’ interest rates due to differences in sovereign default risk.

本論文包括三篇有關「國防經濟」相關議題之研究。此三篇研究建立隨機的內生性成長模型，進行國防經濟的成長與福利分析，整個論文的主軸及行文順序如下： 第一篇文章為「國防支出、隨機成長與福利」，本文主要係延伸Barro (1990)、Turnovsky (1999) 與Gong and Zou (2003) 所提政府支出具生產力的概念，建構一個隨機的內生性成長模型，探討國防支出對於長期經濟成長率與福利水準的影響。我們發現國防支出與長期經濟成長率的關係是非線性的，並且得到使得長期經濟成長率最大時的最適國防支出比例。此外，我們也證明國防支出會透過兩種管道影響福利水準：第一種管道為國家安全效果，第二種管道為經濟成長效果。最後，本文首先提出國防支出波動程度對長期經濟成長率以及福利水準的衝擊會受到生產與國防支出干擾項的共變數以及代表性個人的風險偏好程度所影響。 第二篇文章為「軍事威脅、隨機成長與福利」，本文係延伸第一篇文章的架構，加入軍事威脅的隨機過程，並建構一個隨機的內生性成長模型，除了得到第一篇文章的結論外，更得到外國軍事支出的成長與本國長期內生成長率成反比以及外國軍事支出的波動程度與本國長期內生成長率成正比的結果。此外，本文亦首先證明外國軍事支出的成長與波動程度對於福利水準與長期經濟成長率的影響是相同的。換言之，若外國軍事支出的成長與波動程度導致長期經濟成長率增加，則福利水準也會增加；反之亦然。 第三篇文章為「軍事威脅、成長與福利：小型開放隨機成長模型」，本文建構一個小型開放的隨機內生性成長模型，探討外國軍事威脅對於本國長期經濟成長率與福利水準的影響。本文首先證明外國軍事威脅未預期的干擾對於本國長期經濟成長率的影響與本國是否為債權國或債務國有關。我們也首先證明外國軍事威脅的波動程度對於經濟成長率隨機過程變異數的衝擊會與本國是否為債權國或債務國以及消費的跨期替代彈性有關，即我們證明如果本國為淨債權國且消費的跨期替代彈性大於1或者如果本國為淨債務國且消費的跨期替代彈性小於1，此時若外國軍事威脅的波動程度愈大，則本國經濟成長率的隨機調整路徑愈平穩。

This collection of essays examines the topic of macroeconomic stabilisation in an international context, focusing on monetary policy, capital controls and exchange rates. Chapter 1, written in collaboration with Giancarlo Corsetti and Joao Duarte, reconsiders the effects of common monetary policy shocks across countries in the euro area, using a data-rich factor model and identifying shocks with high-frequency surprises around policy announcements. We show that the degree of heterogeneity in the response to shocks, while being low in financial variables and output, is significant in consumption, consumer prices and macro variables related to the labour and housing markets. Mirroring country-specific institutional and market differences, we find that home ownership rates are significantly correlated with the strength of the housing channel in monetary policy transmission. We document a high dispersion in the response to shocks of house prices and rents and show that, similar to responses in the US, these variables tend to move in different directions. In Chapter 2, I build a two-country, two-good model to examine the welfare effects of capital controls, finding that under certain circumstances, a shut-down in asset trade can be a Pareto improvement. Further, I examine the robustness of the result to parameter changes, explore a wider set of policy instruments and confront computational issues in this class of international macroeconomic models. I document that within an empirically relevant parameter span for the trade elasticity, the gains from capital controls might be significantly larger than suggested by previous contributions. Moreover, I establish that a refined form of capital controls in the shape of taxes and tariffs cannot improve upon the outcome under financial autarky. Finally, results show that the conjunction of pruning methods and endogenous discount factors can remove explosive behaviour from this class of models and restore equilibrating properties. In Chapter 3, I use a panel of 20 emerging market currencies to assess whether a model that combines fundamental and non-fundamental exchange rate forecasting approaches can successfully predict risk premia (i.e. currency excess returns) over the short horizon. In doing so, I aim to overcome three main shortcomings of earlier research: i) Sensitivity to the chosen sample period; ii) seemingly arbitrary selection of explanatory variables that differs from currency to currency; and iii) difficulty in interpreting forecasts beyond the numerical signal. Based on a theoretical model of currency risk premia, I use real exchange rate strength combined with indicators for carry, momentum and economic sentiment to homogeneously forecast risk premia across all 20 currencies in the sample at a monthly frequency. In doing so, the model remains largely agnostic about structural choices, keeping arbitrarily imposed restrictions to a minimum. Results from portfolio construction suggest that returns are significant and robust both across currencies as well as over time, with Sharpe Ratios in out-of-sample tests above 0.7.

L’objectif est d’analyser les déterminants et les mécanismes de transmission de la politique monétaire en Chine au cours des deux décennies passées. Elle contribue à la littérature par le biais de deux nouvelles mesures de la politique monétaire en Chine, l'une combinant les instruments utilisés par la banque centrale et l'autre basée sur les discours de la banque centrale sur la politique monétaire. Ces deux approches permettent de prendre en compte le comportement complexe et adaptatif de la banque centrale. Ces mesures permettent de mettre en évidence des changements substantiels dans le style de la politique à partir de 2002, plus graduelle et agressive envers l’inflation, en lien avec le début du mandat du gouverneur Xiaochuan, le processus de libéralisation des taux d’intérêt et l’ouverture commerciale et financière de la Chine. De plus, l’estimation d’un modèle à choix discret révèle une politique monétaire caractérisée par une politique accommodante sur l’inflation avant 2002 et un ciblage implicite de l’inflation à partir de 2002, similaire à celles du G3 pré- et post-1979. Enfin, cette thèse analyse les facteurs expliquant la déformation de la courbe des taux obligataires en Chine au cours de la dernière décennie. Alors que le contrôle des taux d’intérêt peut entraver l’usage de la courbe de taux comme référence pour évaluer les actifs risqués, celle-ci évolue bien en lien avec les autres instruments, la situation macroéconomique en Chine et de plus en plus aux communications de la banque centrale. Enfin, nos analyses révèlent l’influence de la politique monétaire américaine sur celle de la Chine et sur l’évolution de la courbe de taux sur la décennie passée. / The objective of this thesis is to enhance the understanding of the determinants and the transmission mechanisms of monetary policy in China over the last two decades. It contributes to the literature providing two new composite measures of monetary policy in China based on alternative approaches, one combining the large range of monetary policy instruments and the other based on central bank speeches. Both prove to be essential to take into account the complex and adaptive behavior of the People’s Bank of China (PBC). Our instrument-based monetary policy index emphasizes substantial changes in policy style towards smoother but more hawkish policy moves from 2002 onwards, consistent with the start of the mandate of Governor Zhou Xiaochuan, the interest rate liberalization process and the increasing trade and financial opening. Moreover, the estimation of a discrete-choice model implies a conduct of monetary policy characterized by an inflation-accommodating policy before 2002 and an implicit inflation targeting from 2002 onwards, which respectively resembles that of pre-1979 and post-1979 policy of the G3. Our thesis examines the deformation of the bond yield curve over the last decade to evaluate monetary policy transmission mechanisms. While regulated interest rates can hamper the use of the yield curve as benchmark for pricing risk, the latter moves in line with the other instruments, the macroeconomic situation, and increasingly to central bank communication, a crucial step toward a market oriented system. Finally, US monetary policy significantly affects monetary policy determinants and transmission mechanisms in China, particularly from its WTO accession in 2001.

本文建構一個小型開放的經濟體系，價格具有僵固性的 DSGE 模型來探討提早釋出的關稅調降訊息所造成總體經濟面的影響。在政府簽訂貿易協定來降低關稅的訊息藉由媒體釋出時，同時民眾具理性預期的假設下，家計單位會因這樣的訊息而改變對未來的預期，在關稅還未實際調降時便改變行為決策。我們研究在不同的協商可能結果: (1)談判破裂，貿易協定未如預期簽訂。(2)談判成功，但貿易協定簽訂的結果比當初訊息所透露的降得更多或較少。(3)談判成功，並完全實現當初訊息的內容。(4)簽訂的時間高於預期，導致實行的時間延期。從結果中我們發現，提早釋出的關稅訊息會抑制民眾的消費和投資，在短期會立即造成需求面的負向衝擊。而降低關稅所帶來的市場活絡，會等到真正調降的時後才出現。所以越早釋出關稅調降的訊息，會造成經濟體系所需付出“等待政策實行的成本”越大。 / There is global trend of economic integration across the world by removing the trade barrier. While the free trade agreements normally include the tariff reduction, the negotiations of the agreement may take a long time, and in some cases, the negotiation may fail. Therefore, the tariff reduction’s effects on the economy can be different if it is realized as expectation or not. With a small open economy DSGE model, this paper examines the effects of news preannouncement on tariffs. With the assumption of rational expectation, households will change their expectation when the news of tariff decrement is preannounced. However, whether or not the news on tariffs can be realized as expectation will lead to different dynamics. In this study, we consider various plausible scenarios: (1) If negotiation fails, thus the news on tariff reduction is not realized (2) If negotiation succeeds, but the amount of actual decrement is more or less than people originally expected. (3) Negotiation succeeds and the content of news is fully realized. (4) Negotiation succeeds, but it takes more time than expected to be realized, thus the policy implementation is postponed. Our study reveals that the news preannouncement restrains consumption and investment before the negotiation is completed, and leads to a negative impact on the economy in the short run. The benefits of the tariff decrement appear if the policy is actually implemented as expected. However, the economy suffers more if the negotiation takes too much time after the news is released.

How should central banks react to movements in the exchange rate? Can social welfare be improved if the policy maker is giving explicit or implicit consideration to fluctuations in the exchange rate? These are some of the principal questions addressed in this thesis, which analyzes the influence of exchange rates on prices and monetary policy, from an empirical as well as a theoretical perspective. The thesis consists of four self-contained papers, and sets off by providing some empirical evidence for incomplete exchange rate pass-through. Incomplete exchange rate pass-through is subsequently incorporated into a theoretical model of a small open economy, to study how exchange rate fluctuations affect monetary policy. The first chapter is an empirical paper studying the relation between exchange rates and prices, using data on Swedish exports of automobiles and kraft paper. A price determining error correction model indicates results consistent with price discrimination and incomplete exchange rate pass-through. In the second chapter, a small open economy aggregate supply-aggregate demand model, allowing for incomplete exchange rate pass-through, is developed to analyze the effects of limited pass-through on monetary policy. The results suggest that the optimal policy reaction, both to foreign and domestic shocks, is dependent on the degree of exchange rate pass-through. The third chapter studies what the delegated monetary policy should be in an open economy with limited pass-through. In particular, the question of whether to delegate an exchange rate-stabilization objective to the policy maker is investigated. The results show that incorporation of an explicit nominal, or real, exchange-rate term in the (optimized) objective function only improves social welfare marginally. The fourth chapter assumes, in contrast, that monetary policy is implemented through a simple instrument rule. It is examined whether the policy maker’s performance, in terms of social welfare, can be improved by also responding to the exchange rate. The results indicate that the exchange rate-augmented policy rules do not outperform an optimized rule without the exchange rate, irrespective of the degree of pass-through. Social welfare is, however, improved by an indirect exchange rate response, which is reached using a policy rule based on Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation, rather than on domestic inflation. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögsk., 2001

En los últimos años se ha desarollado mucho la literatura que utiliza modelos estocásticos de equilibrio económico general en economía abierta. En esta clase de modelos el primer capítulo estudia si el banco central tiene que fijarse en al inflación medida mirando al los precios al consumo (CPI) o a los precios a la producción. Se demonstra como la introducción de competencia monopolística en el mercado del trabajo y rigidez de los salarios nominales justifica el utilizo de la inflación medida sobre CPI. En el segundo capítulo el enfoque es sobre las diferentes volatilidades de la inflación entre paísos de la unión monetaria y como esto se puede relacionar con diferentes estructuras del mercado del trabajo. En el último capítulo se utiliza un modelo a dos paísos para estudiar las consecuencias de una subida del precio del petróleo sobre la inflación, los salarios reales y el producto interno bruto. / In these last years there has been an increasing literature developing DSGE Open Economy Models with market imperfections and nominal rigidities. It is the so called "New Open Economy Macroeconomics". Within this class of models the first chapter analyses the issue of whether the monetary authority should target Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation or domestic inflation. It is shown that the introduction of monopolistic competition in the labour market and nominal wage rigidities rationalise CPI inflation targeting. In the second chapter we introduce matching and searching frictions in the labour market and relate different labour market structures across European countries with differences in the volatility of inflation across the same countries. In the last chapter we use a two-country model with oil in the production function and price and wage rigidities to relate movements in wage and price inflation, real wages and GDP growth rate to oil price changes.

En esta tesis estudio varias cuestiones de política monetaria y fiscal usando modelos de equilibrio generales completamente micro-fundados. El primer capítulo de esta tesis trata la cuestión de cómo la políticas monetarias y fiscales se deben conducir en una unión monetaria donde hay un solo banco central que fija el tipo de interés común mientras que el gobierno todavía conserva independencia completa en las decisiones de políticas fiscales. En el segundo capítulo se dedica a estudiar si es posible racionalizar en un modelo keynesiano completamente micro-fundado la existencia de una unión monetaria. El último capítulo investiga en qué medida el incentivo de las autoridades de política económica en una economía abierta de mejorar los términos de intercambio en su favor se puede compensar por la externalidad de relocalización de la producción (home market effect). / In this thesis I study different kinds of monetary and fiscal policy issues by using fully microfounded general equilibrium models. The first chapter addresses the question of how monetary and fiscal policy should be conducted in a monetary union where there is a single central bank that sets the common interest rate while governments still retain full independence in fiscal policy decisions. The second chapter is devoted to study whether it is possible to rationalize, within a fully microfounded New Keynesian framework, the existence of a monetary union. The last chapter investigates to what extent the incentive of open economy policy makers to improve the terms of trade in their favour can be outweighed by the production relocation externality (the so called home market effect).