Elektronische Bauteile aus organischen Halbleitern stellen höchste Anforderungen an die Qualität der Verkapselung, die sie vor eindringenden Wasser- und Luftmolekülen schützt. Gleichzeitig soll diese preiswert und mechanisch flexibel sein. Diese Arbeit realisiert Aluminium-Mehrschichtsysteme als wirkungsvolle, biegsame und einfache Verkapselung. Es werden verschiedene Herstellungsmethoden und Zwischenschichtmaterialien untersucht, wobei die Barrierelamination als überlegenes Verfahren etabliert wird. Verkapselungssysteme werden mittels optischer Untersuchung und mit dem elektrischen Calciumtest auf ihre Güte geprüft, bevor sie in Solarzellenalterungsexperimenten unter realitätsnahen Bedingungen zur Anwendung kommen. Laminationsbarrieren aus Aluminiumdünnschichten zeigen reproduzierbar Wasserdampfdurchtrittsraten im unteren 10^(-4) g(H2O)/m^2/Tag-Bereich unter beschleunigten Permeationsbedingungen. Sie verlängern die T(50)-Lebensdauer von Solarzellen um einen Faktor 50 gegenüber unverkapselten Zellen auf Werte, die mit starrer Glas- oder zeitaufwendiger ALD-Verkapselung vergleichbar sind. / Organic electronic devices require excellent encapsulation to protect them from intruding water- and air-molecules. At the same time, the encapsulation has to be inexpensive and flexible. This work presents aluminum multilayer barriers as highly effective, flexible and low-cost encapsulation. Various production methods and interlayer materials are investigated and barrier-lamination is established as superior process. Encapsulation systems are evaluated optically and by means of the electrical calcium-test, before they are employed in realistic solar cell aging experiments. Lamination-barriers of thin aluminum films show reproducible water-vapor transmission rates in the low 10^(-4) g(H2O)/m^2/day-range under accelerated permeation conditions. They improve the T(50)-lifetime of solar cells by a factor of 50 compared to unencapsulated cells, reaching values on par with rigid glass encapsulation or time-consuming atomic layer deposition.

We report on the detailed electrical investigation of all-inkjet-printed thin-film transistor (TFT) arrays focusing on TFT failures and their origins. The TFT arrays were manufactured on flexible polymer substrates in ambient condition without the need for cleanroom environment or inert atmosphere and at a maximum temperature of 150 °C. Alternative manufacturing processes for electronic devices such as inkjet printing suffer from lower accuracy compared to traditional microelectronic manufacturing methods. Furthermore, usually printing methods do not allow the manufacturing of electronic devices with high yield (high number of functional devices). In general, the manufacturing yield is much lower compared to the established conventional manufacturing methods based on lithography. Thus, the focus of this contribution is set on a comprehensive analysis of defective TFTs printed by inkjet technology. Based on root cause analysis, we present the defects by developing failure categories and discuss the reasons for the defects. This procedure identifies failure origins and allows the optimization of the manufacturing resulting finally to a yield improvement.

Ce travail de recherche pluridisciplinaire a consisté en l'étude de cellules photovoltaïques organiques à base de nouveaux copolymères à blocs de type rigide-flexible. L'idée était de proposer une alternative aux mélanges donneur/accepteur, dont la morphologie en film est très difficile à contrôler, en élaborant de nouveaux matériaux conjugués capables de s'auto-organiser et de créer une nano-structuration de la couche active, permettant ainsi d'optimiser certains paramètres du processus photovoltaïque (dissociation de l'exciton, conduction des charges vers les électrodes). La première étape a consisté à développer une synthèse simplifiée et versatile de copolymères constitués d'un bloc conjugué donneur (poly(3-hexylthiophène), d'un bloc flexible polystyrène, et d'un accepteur d'électron (C60). La seconde étape a consisté à caractériser ces matériaux originaux en tant que couche active ou compatibilisants dans des dispositifs photovoltaïques organiques et ainsi montrer leur potentiel. / This multidisciplinary work deals with the study of organic photovoltaic cells based on new rod-coil block copolymers. The aim was to replace donor/acceptor blends which are currently limited by poor control over their thin-film morphology. It was expected that the new materials may self-assemble to give a nano-structuration of the active layer, and thereby optimize the principal physical photovoltaic processes, namely exciton separation and conduction of charge-carriers through the film to the electrodes. A versatile and simplified synthesis of rod-coil copolymers consisting of a donor conjugated block [poly(3-hexylthiophene], a flexible block (polystyrene) and an electron acceptor (C60) was developed. The characterization of the new materials demonstrated their potential as an active layer or compatibilizer in photovoltaic devices.

Esta Tese aborda o estudo de transistores por efeito de campo orgânicos (OFETs do inglês, Organic Feld-Effect Transistors). Entender o comportamento da carga acumulada no canal do OFET, a qual é responsável pelo processo de condução elétrica no dispositivo, é de grande importância para ajudar a melhorar sua eficiência ou a propor um modelo teórico que descreva o comportamento do transistor em todos os seus regimes de operação. Vários trabalhos na literatura investigam o campo elétrico na camada semicondutora do transistor (ao longo do canal) gerado pela acumulação de cargas, porém nenhum investiga o campo na camada dielétrica de OFETs, que é diretamente proporcional à carga acumulada no canal. Investigou-se inicialmente o campo elétrico na camada dielétrica do dispositivo por meio da espectroscopia vibracional por Geração de Soma de Frequências (espectroscopia SFG do inglês, Sum-Frequency Generation). Espectros SFG obtidos nos dispositivos polarizados exibiram uma banda em ~1720 cm-1, devido ao grupo carbonila da camada dielétrica orgânica (PMMA – poli(metil metacrilato)), cuja a amplitude foi proporcional à voltagem de porta aplicada, indicando que esses grupos polares foram orientados sob ação do intenso campo elétrico no dispositivo. Esse sinal SFG induzido pelo campo pode ser devido a duas contribuições, um termo não linear de segunda ordem (devido à reorientação molecular) e outro de terceira ordem (interação entre os campos ópticos e o campo estático no volume do material). Observamos uma redução quase completa do sinal SFG em altas temperaturas (próximas da Tg do polímero dielétrico), indicando que o mecanismo de reorientação molecular é o responsável pelo sinal SFG gerado. Foram realizadas então medidas preliminares de microscopia SFG para mapear esse sinal SFG ao longo do canal de OFETs a base dos polímeros N2200 (semicondutor) e PMMA (dielétrico). Os resultados conseguem demonstrar a variação da densidade de carga acumulada no canal quando o dispositivo está polarizado e próximo à saturação. Usando Microscopia por Modulação de Carga (microscopia CMM do inglês, Charge Modulation Microscopy), que é outro método não invasivo para investigar a acumulação de cargas em um dispositivo operando, mapeamos a distribuição de carga no canal desses OFETs com alta resolução espacial (sub-micrométrica). Além disso, uma simulação da densidade de carga esperada e dos perfis de CMM foi realizada usando um modelo ambipolar para OFETs. Com base nessas simulações, propusemos uma modulação de onda quadrada do OFET, que permite uma comparação mais direta dos perfis de CMM com o perfil de densidade de carga ao longo do canal do transistor. Usando o esquema proposto, esses perfis foram medidos e comparados com o esperado com base no modelo ambipolar. Em geral os perfis de densidade de carga obtidos concordam bem com o modelo, usando apenas um único parâmetro global ajustável, exceto muito próximo do eletrodo de dreno e no regime de saturação profunda, quando os experimentos apresentam um artefato devido à eletro-absorção e não permitem uma comparação precisa com o modelo. Portanto, espera-se que esta Tese tenha contribuído para o avanço de técnicas de caracterização da distribuição de carga em OFETs, e assim melhorar o entendimento de seus mecanismos de funcionamento. / This Thesis deals with the study of Organic Field Effect Transistors (OFETs). Understanding the behavior of the accumulated charge along the OFET channel, which is responsible for the electrical conduction process in the device, is of great importance for improving its efficiency or proposing a theoretical model that describes the behavior of the transistor in all its operating regimes. Several studies in the literature investigate the electric field in the semiconductor layer of the transistor (along the channel) generated by the charge accumulation, but none investigates the field in the OFET dielectric layer, which is directly proportional to the charge accumulated in the channel. The electric field in the dielectric layer of the device was initially investigated by Sum-Frequency Generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy. SFG spectra obtained in the polarized devices exhibited a band at ~ 1720 cm-1, due to the carbonyl group of the organic dielectric layer (PMMA - poly (methyl methacrylate)), whose amplitude was proportional to the applied gate voltage, indicating that these polar groups were oriented by the intense electric field in the device. This field-induced SFG signal may be due to two contributions, a second order non-linear term (due to molecular reorientation) and a third order term (interaction between the optical fields and the static field in the material volume). We observed an almost complete reduction of the SFG signal at high temperatures (close to the Tg of the dielectric polymer), indicating that the molecular reorientation mechanism is responsible for the generated SFG signal. Preliminary SFG microscopy measurements were performed to map this SFG signal along the channel of OFET fabricated with N2200 (semiconductor) and PMMA (dielectric) polymers. The results demonstrate the variation of the accumulated charge density along the channel when the device is polarized and close to saturation. Using Charge Modulation Microscopy (CMM), which is another noninvasive method to investigate the accumulation of charges in an operating device, we mapped the charge distribution in the channel of these OFETs with high spatial resolution (sub-micrometer). In addition, a simulation of the expected charge density and CMM profiles was performed using an ambipolar model for OFETs. Based on these simulations, we proposed a square-wave modulation of the OFET, which allows a more direct comparison of the CMM profiles with the charge density profile. Using the proposed scheme, these profiles along the transistor channel were measured and compared with those expected from the ambipolar model. In general, the obtained charge density profiles agree well with the model, using only a single global adjustable parameter, except very close to the drain electrode and in the deep saturation regime, when the experiments have an artifact due to the electro-absorption and do not allow a precise comparison with the model. Therefore, it is expected that this Thesis has contributed to the advancement of techniques to characterize the charge distribution in OFETs, and thus improve the understanding of its operating mechanisms. Keywords: Field-effect transistors. Organic electronics. Nonlinear optics. Sum-frequency generation. Polarization of dielectrics. Charge modulation microscopy. Metal-insulator-semiconductor capacitor.

O uso de materiais orgânicos em dispositivos eletrônicos, além de menor custo e facilidade de processamento, permite obter flexibilidade e transparência. Entretanto, para que a aplicação comercial desses materiais seja viável, os processos que ocorrem nos dispositivos ainda precisam ser mais bem compreendidos, visando maior eficiência e tempo de vida. É de grande importância o estudo das interfaces entre o semicondutor orgânico e os contatos metálicos, onde ocorre transferência de portadores de carga, e a interface com o dielétrico em transistores orgânicos (OFETs), onde se forma o canal de condução. As interfaces de dispositivos eletrônicos poliméricos foram estudadas, utilizando-se Espectroscopia SFG (do inglês Sum Frequency Generation). Esta técnica obtém um sinal com a soma das frequências de dois feixes incidentes sobrepostos, em um processo seletivo a meios onde não há simetria de inversão, como no caso de interfaces. Com aplicação de um feixe de excitação na região visível e outro sintonizável no infravermelho médio, a espectroscopia SFG fornece um espectro vibracional da interface e permite o estudo do ordenamento e da orientação dos grupos moleculares. Foram construídos e analisados OFETs de poli-3-hexiltiofeno (P3HT) preparados sobre substrato de vidro ou silício, utilizando como isolante óxido de silício e/ou poli-metil-metacrilato (PMMA). Foram obtidos espectros in situ do canal de OFETs em operação, observando pequenas alterações na forma de linha, porém a baixa relação sinal/ruído não permitiu obter conclusões detalhadas. Foi constatada a manifestação de bandas da camada isolante de PMMA como consequência da aplicação de campo elétrico. Este fenômeno foi considerado como uma nova ferramenta para estudar a distribuição de cargas e campo elétrico no canal de transistores. Não foram detectados sinais de degradação irreversível no polímero semicondutor a curto prazo, e a mudança de comportamento elétrico foi atribuída majoritariamente a dopagem por oxigênio absorvido no material. / The usage of organic materials in electronic devices allows not only low cost and ease of processing but also flexibility and transparency. However, to achieve viable commercial application, the processes involved on the devices operation must still be better comprehended, aiming for improved efficiency and life time. There is great importance in the study of the interfaces between organic semiconductors and metallic contacts, where charge transfer takes place, and between the dielectric and semiconductor layers of organic transistors (OFETs), where the conducting channel is formed. The interfaces in polymeric electronic devices were studied by SFG spectroscopy (Sum Frequency Generation). In this technique, a signal with frequency that equals the sum of those of two incident beams is generated in a process only allowed in media without inversion symmetry, such as interfaces. Using a visible excitation beam and a tunable infrared one, SFG spectroscopy yields a vibrational spectrum of the interface and provides information about the conformation and orientation of molecular groups. Poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) OFETs were fabricated using glass or silicon substrates and silicon oxide and/or poly-methyl-methacrylate (PMMA) for the dielectric layer. SFG spectra were acquired in situ from the channel region of operating OFETs, observing small changes in lineshape, but low signal-to-noise ration did not allow a detailed interpretation. It was found that PMMA vibrational bands appeared when polarizing the device. This phenomenon was considered a new tool for studying the electric field and charge distribution along transistor channels. It was not noted any sign of short term irreversible degradation of the semiconducting polymer, and the change in the electrical behavior was attributed mainly to doping of the polymer by oxygen absorbed in the material.

Systeme aus konjugierten Molekülen und Graphenen bergen hohes Potential für Anwendungen. Die Untersuchung ihrer Wechselwirkungsmechanismen ist wichtig für die Entwicklung neuer Anwendungen und Fokus dieser Arbeit: Optische Mikroskopie, Spektroskopie und Rasterkraftmikroskopie werden komplementär verwendet, um die optischen und strukturellen Eigenschaften solcher Systeme zu erforschen. Insbesondere werden (i) die Permeationsbarriere-Eigenschaften von Graphen in-situ auf einem halbleitenden Polymerfilm quantifiziert. Weiterhin werden (ii) die Fluoreszenz- und (iii) Raman-Emission von konjugierten Molekülen in der Nähe von Graphen untersucht und die entsprechenden Kopplungsmechanismen diskutiert. (i) Graphene zeigen sich als effizienter Schutz des empfindlichen Polymers [Poly(3-hexylthiophen)] vor Degeneration durch Sauerstoff und Wasser aus der Umgebungsluft. Dies legt nahe, dass Graphene nicht nur als transparente Elektrode, sondern gleichzeitig als Barriereschicht in künftigen optoelektronischen Bauelementen dienen können. (ii) Es wird gezeigt, dass die bekannten optischen Eigenschaften von Graphen die Existenz stark lokalisierter Graphen-Plasmonen im Sichtbaren implizieren. Durch Verwendung von nanoskaligen Emittern [Rhodamin 6G (R6G)], welche die für effiziente Anregung von Graphen-Plasmonen im optischen Frequenzbereich notwendigen großen Wellenvektor bereitstellen, wird Graphen-Plasmonen-induzierte (GPI) Fluoreszenz-Anregungsverstärkung von nahezu 3 Größenordnungen nachgewiesen. Demnach ist Graphen für plasmonische Bauelemente im Sichtbaren interessant. (iii) Außerdem wird GPI Verstärkung des Raman-Querschnittes von R6G um 1 Größenordnung nachgewiesen. Zukünftige Entwicklung von Antennen für zusätzliche direkte Anregung von Graphen-Plasmonen aus dem Fernfeld macht Graphen vielversprechend für leistungsfähige oberflächenverstärkte Raman-Spektroskopie. Zusammenfassend wurden neue und anwendungsrelevante Einblicke in die analysierten Systeme gewonnen. / Systems of conjugated molecules and graphenes bear high application potential. The investigation of their interaction mechanisms is important for design of new applications and the focus of this thesis: Optical microscopy, spectroscopy and scanning force microscopy are complementarily used to explore the optical and structural properties of such systems. In particular (i) the permeation barrier properties of graphene are quantified in-situ on a semiconducting polymer film. Furthermore (ii) the fluorescence and (iii) Raman emission of conjugated molecules in proximity to graphene are investigated and the respective coupling mechanisms are discussed. (i) Graphenes are found to efficiently protect the sensitive polymer [poly(3-hexylthiophene)] from degradation by oxygen and water from the ambient atmosphere. This suggests that graphenes can not only serve as transparent electrode, but simultaneously as a barrier layer in future optoelectronic devices. (ii) It is shown that the known optical properties of graphene imply the existence of strongly localized graphene plasmons in the visible. Using nanoscale emitters [rhodamine 6G (R6G)] that provide the high wave vectors necessary to efficiently excite graphene plasmons at optical frequencies, graphene plasmon induced (GPI) fluorescence excitation enhancement by nearly 3 orders of magnitude is demonstrated. Graphene is thus interesting for plasmonic devices in the visible. (iii) In addition GPI enhancement of the Raman cross section of R6G by 1 order of magnitude is demonstrated. The future design of antennas for additional direct farfield excitation of graphene plasmons makes graphene promising for powerful surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy. In summary new and application relevant insights were gained into the studied systems.

O uso de materiais orgânicos em dispositivos eletrônicos, além de menor custo e facilidade de processamento, permite obter flexibilidade e transparência. Entretanto, para que a aplicação comercial desses materiais seja viável, os processos que ocorrem nos dispositivos ainda precisam ser mais bem compreendidos, visando maior eficiência e tempo de vida. É de grande importância o estudo das interfaces entre o semicondutor orgânico e os contatos metálicos, onde ocorre transferência de portadores de carga, e a interface com o dielétrico em transistores orgânicos (OFETs), onde se forma o canal de condução. As interfaces de dispositivos eletrônicos poliméricos foram estudadas, utilizando-se Espectroscopia SFG (do inglês Sum Frequency Generation). Esta técnica obtém um sinal com a soma das frequências de dois feixes incidentes sobrepostos, em um processo seletivo a meios onde não há simetria de inversão, como no caso de interfaces. Com aplicação de um feixe de excitação na região visível e outro sintonizável no infravermelho médio, a espectroscopia SFG fornece um espectro vibracional da interface e permite o estudo do ordenamento e da orientação dos grupos moleculares. Foram construídos e analisados OFETs de poli-3-hexiltiofeno (P3HT) preparados sobre substrato de vidro ou silício, utilizando como isolante óxido de silício e/ou poli-metil-metacrilato (PMMA). Foram obtidos espectros in situ do canal de OFETs em operação, observando pequenas alterações na forma de linha, porém a baixa relação sinal/ruído não permitiu obter conclusões detalhadas. Foi constatada a manifestação de bandas da camada isolante de PMMA como consequência da aplicação de campo elétrico. Este fenômeno foi considerado como uma nova ferramenta para estudar a distribuição de cargas e campo elétrico no canal de transistores. Não foram detectados sinais de degradação irreversível no polímero semicondutor a curto prazo, e a mudança de comportamento elétrico foi atribuída majoritariamente a dopagem por oxigênio absorvido no material. / The usage of organic materials in electronic devices allows not only low cost and ease of processing but also flexibility and transparency. However, to achieve viable commercial application, the processes involved on the devices operation must still be better comprehended, aiming for improved efficiency and life time. There is great importance in the study of the interfaces between organic semiconductors and metallic contacts, where charge transfer takes place, and between the dielectric and semiconductor layers of organic transistors (OFETs), where the conducting channel is formed. The interfaces in polymeric electronic devices were studied by SFG spectroscopy (Sum Frequency Generation). In this technique, a signal with frequency that equals the sum of those of two incident beams is generated in a process only allowed in media without inversion symmetry, such as interfaces. Using a visible excitation beam and a tunable infrared one, SFG spectroscopy yields a vibrational spectrum of the interface and provides information about the conformation and orientation of molecular groups. Poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) OFETs were fabricated using glass or silicon substrates and silicon oxide and/or poly-methyl-methacrylate (PMMA) for the dielectric layer. SFG spectra were acquired in situ from the channel region of operating OFETs, observing small changes in lineshape, but low signal-to-noise ration did not allow a detailed interpretation. It was found that PMMA vibrational bands appeared when polarizing the device. This phenomenon was considered a new tool for studying the electric field and charge distribution along transistor channels. It was not noted any sign of short term irreversible degradation of the semiconducting polymer, and the change in the electrical behavior was attributed mainly to doping of the polymer by oxygen absorbed in the material.

Ce travail s'inscrit dans le domaine des cellules solaires organiques et se focalise sur le dimensionnement et design de la cellule. Nous avons cherché à établir la relation entre la forme d'une cellule solaire et sa dissipation thermique dans les électrodes, plus spécifiquement l'électrode inférieure transparente, car les matériaux utilisés pour la réaliser ont souvent une conductivité très faible par rapport à celle des électrodes métalliques. D'autre part nous présentons un modèle actif capable de simuler le comportement de la couche active selon différentes conditions d'éclairage (illumination partielle et défauts localisés) et pour différents régimes de fonctionnement (injection, polarisation). Dans le cadre du projet PHASME en partenariat avec Disasolar et l'INES, on a posé les bases pour le développement d'un logiciel de conception capable de réaliser un module solaire multicolore à partir d'un substrat de forme géométrique quelconque. On a identifié deux types d'algorithme. Une solution A (dite matricielle), pour laquelle on effectue le remplissage de la surface active du module avec des cellules identiques, relie entre elles ces cellules en sous-groupes pour créer le potentiel de fonctionnement souhaité. Une méthode B (dite non-matricielle) consiste à partager la surface du module en sous-modules de surface quelconque adaptée aux zones de couleur. Ces sous-modules sont ensuite découpés en groupement en série cellules du même type (couleur, performance, matériaux de couche active), mais dont la forme s'adapte exactement au remplissage du sous-module. Ces cellules doivent nécessairement avoir la même surface, afin de produire le même courant pour éviter les pertes dans le groupement en série. / This work concerns organic solar cells and it focuses on several aspects of the design of the device that are related to the sizing. The core of this study highlights the relation between the shape of an organic solar cell and the thermal dissipation inside the electrodes. The main contribution to this power loss comes from the transparent back electrode, since its conductivity is typically lower than those of the top electrode. In parallel we developed a non-linear model for the active layer in order to simulate the behavior of the solar cells in several particular illumination cases (such as spotlights, shadows and defects in the active layer) and different working regime. In the framework of PHASME project, a grant in collaboration with Disasolar and CEA-INES, we developed another piece of software closer to the CAD domain which the main function was to create a photovoltaic polychrome module starting from a substrate with given shape and size. We found two strategies. One consists in filling by the same solar cell shape and size the entire substrate and then in finding a suitable grouping in order to have the correct working point outside the device (matrix approach). The other one (non-matrix approach) consists in adapting the shape of the device to a given colored region, each individual cell keeping the same surface extension, which allows them to be connected in series since they all generate the same amount of current.

L'électronique supramoléculaires vise à construire et à étudier les propriétés optoélectroniques des architectures supramoléculaires à l'échelle nanométrique. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'obtenir le contrôle de l'organisation des systèmesmoléculaires organiques et de corréler leur structure avec les propriétés électriques, avec une attention particulière sur les propriétés à l'échelle nanométrique. Les stratégies exploitées nécessitent un design chimique adapté, un équilibre desinteractions intermoléculaires et d'interface, un contrôle sur la cinétique des processus et, éventuellement, l'exploitation des forces extérieures. Les résultats présentés montrent que la compréhension des propriétés locales d'un matériau sur une base à l'échelle nanométrique est un énorme défi fondamental vise à apporter des solutions à des questions scientifiques et technologiques, puisque les performances dans les appareils électroniques sont fortement dépendante de l'ordre au niveau supramoléculaire. / Supramolecular electronics aims to construct and investigate the optoelectronic properties of tailored supramolecular nanoarchitectures. The aim of this thesis is to get control over the organization of organic molecular systems and correlate their structure with the electrical properties, with particular attention at the nanoscale properties. The exploited strategies require a focused molecular design, the balancing of intermolecular and interfacial interactions, a control on the kinetics of the processes and possibly the exploitation of external forces. The presented results showed that understanding the local properties of a material on a nanoscale basis is a huge fundamental challenge to bring solutions to both scientific and technological issues, since in electronic devices the performances are strongly dependent on the order at the supramolecular level.

Optically transparent carbon based nanomaterials including graphene and carbon nanotubes(CNTs) are promising candidates as transparent conductive electrodes due to their high electrical conductivity coupled with high optical transparency, can be flexed several times with minimal deterioration in their electronic properties, and do not require costly high vacuum processing conditions. CNTs are easily solution processed through the use of surfactants sodium dodecyl sulfate(SDS) and sodium cholate(SC). Allowing CNTs to be deposited onto transparent substrates through vacuum filtration, ultrasonic spray coating, dip coating, spin coating, and inkjet printing. However, surfactants are electrically insulating, limit chemical doping, and increase optical absorption thereby decreasing overall performance of electrodes. Surfactants can be removed through nitric acid treatment and annealing in an inert environment (e.g. argon). In this thesis, the impact of surfactant removal on electrode performance was investigated. Nitric acid treatment has been shown to p-dope CNTs and remove the surfactant SDS. However, nitric acid p-doping is naturally dedoped with exposure to air, does not completely remove the surfactant SC, and has been shown to damage CNTs by creating defect sites. Annealing at temperatures up to 1000°C is advantageous in that it removes insulating surfactants. However, annealing may also remove surface functional groups that dope CNTs. Therefore, there are competing effects when annealing CNT electrodes. The impacts on electrode performance were investigated through the use of conductive-tip atomic force microscopy, sheet resistance, and transmittance measurements. In this thesis, the potential of graphene CNT composite electrodes as high performing transparent electrodes was investigated. As-made and annealed graphene oxide CNT composites electrodes were studied. Finally, a chemical vapor deposition grown graphene CNT composite electrode was also studied.