[pt] Esta dissertação tem como objetivo analisar o papel das Organizações de Sociedade Civil (OSCs) brasileiras na integração local de refugiados e em que medida estas assumem responsabilidades que deveriam ser do Estado de acordo com os compromissos nacionais e internacionais firmados por ele. Dentro desse contexto, o trabalho ressalta a dinâmica do modelo tripartite ou de responsabilidade compartilhada que possibilita essa transferência de responsabilidade do Estado para as OSCs. Para tanto, este trabalho realiza uma revisão da literatura no tema e fundamenta essa análise com entrevistas realizadas em campo. Assim, no primeiro momento, este trabalho analisa os compromissos do Direito Internacional dos Refugiados e da legislação brasileira em vigor a respeito de refúgio e migração. Posteriormente, o trabalho expõe um breve debate sobre o conceito de integração local. Por fim, é analisado o papel da sociedade civil organizada na integração local de refugiados no Brasil, incluindo a visão dos entrevistados, e então, expostas as conclusões a partir do evidenciado. / [en] This dissertation investigates how Brazilian Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) develop the local integration of refugees, and to what extent they are willing to take on responsibilities that originally belong to the State under the national and international commitments signed by it. Within this context, this work highlights the tripartite or shared responsibility model s dynamics that enable this assignment of responsibility from the State to the CSOs. To pursue this argument, this work relies on a literature review and interviews carried out in the field throughout the research. Firstly, this work will analyse the commitments of International Refugee Law and the current Brazilian legislation regarding refuge and migration. Then, this work follows by exposing a brief discussion of the concept of local integration. Finally, this dissertation will look at the role of organized civil society in the local integration of refugees in Brazil. In this part, this work will consider the perspectives brought by interviewees to advance its argument, and then, conclusions are exposed from the evidence.

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Roughly 79-100% of maize in the United States (US) is treated with a neonicotinoid seed treatment (NST), and transgenic (GMO) maize, Zea mays L. (Poaceae), that produces insecticidal toxins by way of genes derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), occupies more than 75% of maize acreage. Among a variety of secondary pests targeted by NSTs, the primary soil-dwelling pest targeted by Bt maize is the western corn rootworm (WCR), Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Transgenic Bt technology has dramatically reduced insecticide use for WCR, and insect resistance poses the greatest threat to its utility. To delay resistance to Bt traits, in 2010 the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approved a "refuge-in-a-bag" (RIB) insect resistance management (IRM) strategy, where 5% of seeds do not express Bt toxins (i.e., "refuge" maize). The RIB strategy is intended to preserve Bt trait effectiveness if mating between 'resistant' insects from Bt plants and 'susceptible' insects from refuge plants occurs at a high enough frequency. Investigations into the effectiveness of RIB for WCR have shown that beetles emerged from Bt plants tend to vastly outnumber beetles emerged from refuge plants, which contributes to low rates of mixed mating. Large proportions of Bt beetles is one of several factors that contributes to resistance development, and resistance to all currently-available WCR-Bt traits has been documented. I conducted field experiments in two regions (Indiana and Virginia) comparing refuge beetle proportions in NST-treated (NST+) and NST-untreated (NST-) 5% RIB maize, to determine whether NSTs may be limiting refuge beetle emergence. To assess advantages of combining use of Bt and NSTs, I compared stand, root injury rating, and yield between NST+, NST-, Bt and non-Bt maize in both states. I also measured neonicotinoid residues in soil, water, and stream sediment within and surrounding fields of maize, to study the off-site movement and soil residence time of these compounds. I found that 5% seed blends did not produce large populations of refuge beetles in any site-year, and that NSTs showed inconsistent effects on refuge beetle populations. Treatment comparisons showed inconsistent benefits of NSTs when combined with Bt traits. I detected neonicotinoid residues in soil matrices throughout the growing season (range: 0 – 417.42 ppb), including prior to planting, suggesting year-round presence of these compounds. My results suggest that, while the effects of NSTs on Bt IRM may be inconsistent, the benefits of universally applying NSTs to Bt maize for soil pests may not be worth the ecological costs of doing so in all cases. / Doctor of Philosophy / About 75% of maize planted in the United States is encoded with genetic traits allowing them to manufacture insecticidal proteins which are toxic to key pests. These insecticidal proteins, known as "Bt toxins," are highly specific to targeted insects, and are virtually non-toxic all other animals and non-target insects. One target insect is the western corn rootworm (WCR), which feeds on and damages maize roots. In the past, WCR was controlled by applying millions of kilograms of chemical insecticides every year, at ever-increasing rates, to compensate for reduced effectiveness due to pest resistance. "Bt" plants, were released for commercial use in the late 1990s; they reduced the need for growers to apply chemical insecticides for managing key pests. The Environmental Protection Agency established regulations aiming to maintain the effectiveness of Bt technology, which they declared have "provided substantial human health, environmental, and economic benefit." This Insect Resistance Management (IRM) strategy, also known as the "refuge" strategy, is meant to preserve Bt-susceptible insects so they can pass on their Bt-susceptible genes to successive generations. The refuge strategy works by incorporating a certain percentage of non-Bt plants per every field of Bt plants; if enough insects survive on these "refuge" plants to outnumber "resistant" insects, population-wide Bt-susceptibility may be maintained. While this strategy has been effective for other key maize pests, it is failing for WCR, evidenced by WCR populations that have developed Bt-resistance. We know current refuge configurations aren't producing enough refuge-WCR to mix sufficiently with resistant WCR, likely due to insufficient refuge sizes. I wanted to know whether the refuge strategy could be improved, if increasing refuge proportions is not an option. Considering that Bt toxins are only effective against a narrow range of insects, seed manufacturers always coat seeds with an insecticide to protect seedlings against other insects. These coatings, or neonicotinoid seed treatments (NSTs), are included on nearly all seed, including those reserved for Bt refuges. I conducted two years of field trials to investigate whether removing NSTs from refuge seeds would improve WCR-IRM by providing an insecticide-free "refuge." My results suggest that removing NSTs may increase refuge beetle proportions, however my results also show that refuge plant proportions are simply too small to support large enough refuge-WCR populations to delay resistance, regardless of whether NSTs are present or not. While NSTs may provide extra comfort to growers at little additional cost, questions regarding their necessity at current use patterns have been raised. Several studies have shown inconsistent benefits, and others have shown longer-than-expected persistence in the environment, movement into streams and groundwater, and even alterations to insect and non-insect animal communities associated with their use. I conducted research comparing their relative effectiveness against WCR and non-WCR insect pests in fields of Bt maize. Additionally, I scouted for their residues in soil collected in field margins, forests buffering streams, and in water collected from agricultural ditches and waterways neighboring fields. I found that, while NSTs produced higher plant populations, they rarely resulted in greater yields. I detected neonicotinoid residues in soil matrices throughout the growing season, including prior to planting, suggesting year-round presence of these compounds. My results suggest that, while the effects of NSTs on Bt IRM may be inconsistent, the benefits of universally applying NSTs to Bt maize for soil pests may not be worth the ecological costs of doing so in all cases.

Commercialisées depuis 1996, les plantes génétiquement modifiées produisant une toxine insecticide (toxine Cry) dérivée de Bacillus thuringiensis et appelées plantes Bt ciblent certains Lépidoptères ou Coléoptères ravageurs. Au fil des ans, les surfaces cultivées en plantes Bt sont de plus en plus importantes et contrôlent de larges populations d'insectes. Pour limiter le risque de développement de populations résistantes, une stratégie agricole appelée 'Haute Dose / Zone Refuge' est actuellement recommandée aux Etats-Unis par l'Environmental Protection Agency. Cette stratégie préventive nécessite la plantation d'une 'zone refuge' composée de plantes non-Bt utilisables par le ravageur ciblé et plantée à proximité de la 'zone Bt' qui synthétise une haute dose de toxine Cry. Mon projet de recherche s’inscrit dans le cadre de l’évaluation de l'efficacité de cette stratégie et s’articule en deux phases : une phase expérimentale et une phase théorique. La première se concentre sur la caractérisation en laboratoire de l'impact des toxines Cry sur la biologie d'un ravageur. Cette phase constitue un support au volet théorique : la mise au point d’un modèle mathématique évaluant l'efficacité de la stratégie HD/R. L'originalité de ce projet repose entre autre sur l'interactivité entre ces deux volets. Volet expérimental. Impact des toxines Cry sur la biologie de Plodia interpunctella. Nous évaluons séparément l'impact d'une gamme de concentrations de deux toxines Cry (CryXX et CryYY) sur une série de paramètres comportementaux et biologiques d'un insecte commun des denrées stockées: Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). Ces paramètres sont sélectionnés car leur variation pourrait avoir un impact sur l'efficacité de la stratégie HD/R dans le contrôle de la résistance. Il est donc pertinent de les quantifier pour intégrer dans le modèle des ordres de grandeur réalistes et générer des résultats qui ne sont pas uniquement basés sur des spéculations théoriques. Volet théorique A. Efficacité de la stratégie HD/R pour des plantes Bt synthétisant une ou deux toxines simultanément. La stratégie 'HD/R' a été développée pour prévenir la résistance envers les plantes Bt synthétisant une seule toxine. Or, depuis 2003, de nouvelles variétés de coton Bt synthétisant simultanément deux toxines Cry sont commercialisées (BollgardII® et WidestrikeTM). Nous évaluons, grâce au modèle que nous avons développé, l'efficacité de cette stratégie lors d'une utilisation exclusive de plantes Bt synthétisant une ou deux toxines. Volet théorique B. Impact du ralentissement du développement des insectes sur les plantes Bt sur l'efficacité de la stratégie HD/R. Le volet expérimental met en évidence un allongement de la durée du développement des larves se nourrissant sur une diète contaminée en toxine Cry. Ce ralentissement induit une séparation temporelle entre l'émergence des adultes de la zone Bt et de la zone refuge et perturbe une hypothèse principale de la stratégie HD/R: le croisement aléatoire entre adultes, indépendamment du génotype et de la zone d'origine. Dans ce troisième chapitre, nous étudions l'impact de la perturbation du croisement aléatoire sur l'efficacité de la stratégie HD/R. Nous testons également deux options pour optimiser la stratégie en cas d'asynchronie: l'utilisation de plantes Bt synthétisant une faible concentration en toxine (atténuant le décalage entre l'émergence des adultes) ou l'augmentation de la taille de la zone refuge (favorisant la survie des individus porteurs d'allèle de sensibilité et donc optimisant la dilution de la résistance à la génération suivante). Ce travail s'intègre dans une problématique actuelle et utilise des outils de biologie théorique (théories de la dynamique et de la génétique des populations) ainsi que le développement d'un modèle mathématique. Il apporte des éléments de réponse et de réflexion sur l'optimisation de la gestion de la résistance des insectes mais c'est aussi une illustration de la complémentarité entre la biologie expérimentale et théorique. / On the market since 1996, genetically modified plants synthesizing an insecticidal toxin (Cry toxin) stemmed from Bacillus thuringiensis, called Bt plants, target several insect pests (Lepidoptera or Coleoptera). Bt crops cover increasingly larger areas and control important pest populations The Insect Resistance Management Strategy (IRM) strategy currently recommended in the U.S.A. to limit the development of resistant populations is the High Dose / Refuge zone (HD/R) strategy. This pre-emptive strategy requires a refuge zone composed by non-Bt plants, usable by the target insect and in close proximity of the Bt zone synthesizing a high toxin concentration. My research project contributes to the effectiveness assessment of this HD/R strategy. It is structured on two main parts: an experimental, and a theoretical section. The first part characterizes the impact of Cry toxins on the biology of an insect pest. It is the basis of the theoretical part: the implementation of a mathematical model, which evaluates the effectiveness of the HD/R strategy. The originality of this project is based on the interactivity of these two components. Experimental section. Impact of the Cry toxins on the biology of Plodia interpunctella. We assess the impact of a range of concentrations of two Cry toxins (CryXX et CryYY) on several behavioural and biological parameters of a common pest of stored products: Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). These parameters are selected because their variation could influence the effectiveness of a HD/R strategy. So, it is important to quantify these parameters so that realistic values can be integrated in our model. The results of the model are thus not based on theoretical assumptions alone. Theoretical section A. Effectiveness of a HD/R strategy with Bt plants synthesizing one or two toxins. Initially, the HD/R strategy has been developed to limit the resistance towards Bt plants synthesizing one toxin. However, since 2003, new Bt cotton varieties synthesize two toxins simultaneously (BollgardII® et WidestrikeTM). We assess, with our model, the effectiveness of this strategy for Bt plants synthesizing one or two toxins. Theoretical section B. Impact of the slowing down of the insect development reared on Bt plants on the effectiveness of the HD/R strategy. The experimental part demonstrates that larvae reared on a Bt diet have a protracted development duration. The consequence of this is a temporal separation between adult emergence in the two zones (Bt zone and refuge zone). This could affect the main assumption of the HD/R strategy, i. e. random mating independently of the genotype and of the native zone. In this third chapter, we study the impact of random mating disruption on the effectiveness of a HD/R strategy. We test two options to optimise the strategy in case of asynchrony: the use of Bt plants synthesizing a lower toxin concentration (limiting emergence asynchrony) or increasing the refuge zone size (favouring the survival of insect carrying one or two susceptible allele and thus optimising the dilution of resistance at the next generation). This work is applied to a current issue. It uses some of the tools of theoretical biology (theories of population dynamics and population genetics) and develops a mathematical model. It provides some responses and some elements of thought about insect resistance management. It is also an illustration of the complementarity between experimental and theoretical biology.

Commercialisées depuis 1996, les plantes génétiquement modifiées produisant une toxine insecticide (toxine Cry) dérivée de Bacillus thuringiensis et appelées plantes Bt ciblent certains Lépidoptères ou Coléoptères ravageurs. Au fil des ans, les surfaces cultivées en plantes Bt sont de plus en plus importantes et contrôlent de larges populations d'insectes. Pour limiter le risque de développement de populations résistantes, une stratégie agricole appelée 'Haute Dose / Zone Refuge' est actuellement recommandée aux Etats-Unis par l'Environmental Protection Agency. Cette stratégie préventive nécessite la plantation d'une 'zone refuge' composée de plantes non-Bt utilisables par le ravageur ciblé et plantée à proximité de la 'zone Bt' qui synthétise une haute dose de toxine Cry. <p><p>Mon projet de recherche s’inscrit dans le cadre de l’évaluation de l'efficacité de cette stratégie et s’articule en deux phases :une phase expérimentale et une phase théorique. La première se concentre sur la caractérisation en laboratoire de l'impact des toxines Cry sur la biologie d'un ravageur. Cette phase constitue un support au volet théorique :la mise au point d’un modèle mathématique évaluant l'efficacité de la stratégie HD/R. L'originalité de ce projet repose entre autre sur l'interactivité entre ces deux volets.<p><p>Volet expérimental. Impact des toxines Cry sur la biologie de Plodia interpunctella. Nous évaluons séparément l'impact d'une gamme de concentrations de deux toxines Cry (CryXX et CryYY) sur une série de paramètres comportementaux et biologiques d'un insecte commun des denrées stockées: Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) (Lepidoptera :Pyralidae). Ces paramètres sont sélectionnés car leur variation pourrait avoir un impact sur l'efficacité de la stratégie HD/R dans le contrôle de la résistance. Il est donc pertinent de les quantifier pour intégrer dans le modèle des ordres de grandeur réalistes et générer des résultats qui ne sont pas uniquement basés sur des spéculations théoriques.<p><p>Volet théorique A. Efficacité de la stratégie HD/R pour des plantes Bt synthétisant une ou deux toxines simultanément. La stratégie 'HD/R' a été développée pour prévenir la résistance envers les plantes Bt synthétisant une seule toxine. Or, depuis 2003, de nouvelles variétés de coton Bt synthétisant simultanément deux toxines Cry sont commercialisées (BollgardII® et WidestrikeTM). Nous évaluons, grâce au modèle que nous avons développé, l'efficacité de cette stratégie lors d'une utilisation exclusive de plantes Bt synthétisant une ou deux toxines.<p><p>Volet théorique B. Impact du ralentissement du développement des insectes sur les plantes Bt sur l'efficacité de la stratégie HD/R. Le volet expérimental met en évidence un allongement de la durée du développement des larves se nourrissant sur une diète contaminée en toxine Cry. Ce ralentissement induit une séparation temporelle entre l'émergence des adultes de la zone Bt et de la zone refuge et perturbe une hypothèse principale de la stratégie HD/R: le croisement aléatoire entre adultes, indépendamment du génotype et de la zone d'origine. Dans ce troisième chapitre, nous étudions l'impact de la perturbation du croisement aléatoire sur l'efficacité de la stratégie HD/R. Nous testons également deux options pour optimiser la stratégie en cas d'asynchronie: l'utilisation de plantes Bt synthétisant une faible concentration en toxine (atténuant le décalage entre l'émergence des adultes) ou l'augmentation de la taille de la zone refuge (favorisant la survie des individus porteurs d'allèle de sensibilité et donc optimisant la dilution de la résistance à la génération suivante). <p><p>Ce travail s'intègre dans une problématique actuelle et utilise des outils de biologie théorique (théories de la dynamique et de la génétique des populations) ainsi que le développement d'un modèle mathématique. Il apporte des éléments de réponse et de réflexion sur l'optimisation de la gestion de la résistance des insectes mais c'est aussi une illustration de la complémentarité entre la biologie expérimentale et théorique.<p><p><p>/<p><p>On the market since 1996, genetically modified plants synthesizing an insecticidal toxin (Cry toxin) stemmed from Bacillus thuringiensis, called Bt plants, target several insect pests (Lepidoptera or Coleoptera). Bt crops cover increasingly larger areas and control important pest populations The Insect Resistance Management Strategy (IRM) strategy currently recommended in the U.S.A. to limit the development of resistant populations is the High Dose / Refuge zone (HD/R) strategy. This pre-emptive strategy requires a refuge zone composed by non-Bt plants, usable by the target insect and in close proximity of the Bt zone synthesizing a high toxin concentration.<p><p>My research project contributes to the effectiveness assessment of this HD/R strategy. It is structured on two main parts: an experimental, and a theoretical section. The first part characterizes the impact of Cry toxins on the biology of an insect pest. It is the basis of the theoretical part: the implementation of a mathematical model, which evaluates the effectiveness of the HD/R strategy.<p>The originality of this project is based on the interactivity of these two components.<p><p>Experimental section. Impact of the Cry toxins on the biology of Plodia interpunctella. We assess the impact of a range of concentrations of two Cry toxins (CryXX et CryYY) on several behavioural and biological parameters of a common pest of stored products: Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) (Lepidoptera :Pyralidae). These parameters are selected because their variation could influence the effectiveness of a HD/R strategy. So, it is important to quantify these parameters so that realistic values can be integrated in our model. The results of the model are thus not based on theoretical assumptions alone.<p> <p>Theoretical section A. Effectiveness of a HD/R strategy with Bt plants synthesizing one or two toxins. Initially, the HD/R strategy has been developed to limit the resistance towards Bt plants synthesizing one toxin. However, since 2003, new Bt cotton varieties synthesize two toxins simultaneously (BollgardII® et WidestrikeTM). We assess, with our model, the effectiveness of this strategy for Bt plants synthesizing one or two toxins.<p><p>Theoretical section B. Impact of the slowing down of the insect development reared on Bt plants on the effectiveness of the HD/R strategy. The experimental part demonstrates that larvae reared on a Bt diet have a protracted development duration. The consequence of this is a temporal separation between adult emergence in the two zones (Bt zone and refuge zone). This could affect the main assumption of the HD/R strategy, i. e. random mating independently of the genotype and of the native zone. In this third chapter, we study the impact of random mating disruption on the effectiveness of a HD/R strategy. We test two options to optimise the strategy in case of asynchrony: the use of Bt plants synthesizing a lower toxin concentration (limiting emergence asynchrony) or increasing the refuge zone size (favouring the survival of insect carrying one or two susceptible allele and thus optimising the dilution of resistance at the next generation). <p><p>This work is applied to a current issue. It uses some of the tools of theoretical biology (theories of population dynamics and population genetics) and develops a mathematical model. It provides some responses and some elements of thought about insect resistance management. It is also an illustration of the complementarity between experimental and theoretical biology.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Nous analysons le dernier ouvrage écrit par Pierre Bayle, les Entretiens de Maxime et de Themiste (1707), où il livre un combat de plume ultime avec deux théologiens réformés, Jean Le Clerc et Isaac Jaquelot. Il s’agit d’une querelle entamée après la publication du Dictionnaire historique et critique (1697) de Bayle, et dont tous les ouvrages directement concernés sont aussi examinés. À partir du problème du mal et du péché, Bayle formule une critique à la théologie chrétienne visant à mettre en évidence la faiblesse des arguments rationnels qui doivent l’affirmer. Les seules forces de la raison ne suffisent pas à éclairer les dogmes qui forment la religion, et il faut avoir recours à la lumière de la foi, à la Bible, pour les accepter. De l’étude de cette argumentation nous concluons que, pour Bayle, la religion est une question privée, qui ne se prête pas vraiment au dialogue philosophique. / We analyze the last work written by Pierre Bayle, the Entretiens de Maxime et de Thémiste (1707), where he opposes for the last time two Arminian Theologians, Jean Le Clerc and Isaac Jaquelot. Their quarrel started with the publication of Bayle’s Dictionnaire historique et critique (1697) and continued until his death in 1706. By pointing to the insoluble problem of evil and sin, he proposes a refutation of rational arguments that attempt to prove Christian Theology. We examine all the writings involved in this controversy and review in great length its arguments. Bayle shows that Christianity is unable to demonstrate its dogmas by reason, and claims that only faith can legitimate them. Therefore it is concluded that religion for Bayle belongs to the private sphere, and cannot be rationalized through a philosophical dialogue.