京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地球環境学) / 甲第24858号 / 地環博第241号 / 新制||地環||47(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院地球環境学舎地球環境学専攻 / (主査)教授 星野, 敏, 准教授 鬼塚, 健一郎, 准教授 落合, 知帆 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Global Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DGAM

This study evaluates the cost-effectiveness of alternative Integrated Pest Management (IPM) training methods and programs aimed at diffusing IPM innovations to farmers in Bangladesh. Various IPM innovations are categorized as being simple, intermediate or complex, while dissemination methods used to extend these innovations are classified as being less intense, moderately intense, or more intense. Examples of less intense diffusion methods include mass media and field day demonstrations, and moderately intense methods include visits from agents. A "farmer field school" (FFS) is considered a more intense type of training method. The study evaluates the effectiveness of these IPM diffusion methods based on a number of criteria such as a methods ability to reach the greatest number of farmers with a given budget, their capability of reaching farmers quickly, and their ability to influence adoption of IPM. Additional components of effectiveness include influencing appropriate use of IPM, influencing retention of IPM, providing a level knowledge that participants can adapt to other areas on the farm, and providing accessibility to limited resource farmers. Data used in the analysis come from a field survey conducted on 350 rice and vegetable farmers in Bangladesh during July and August of 2004. Three ordered probit models are used to measure adoption of simple, intermediate and complex technologies. Results from these models indicate that FFS participants are more likely than non-participants to adopt simple, intermediate and complex practices, while farmers visited by agents are more likely than non-participants to adopt simple and intermediate practices. Field day attendees are more likely to adopt intermediate and complex practices than non-participants. These results may be influenced by endogeneity of unobserved factors that influence participation in FFS but also affect adoption. The study uses a binary probit model to measure appropriate use, but it does not detect any significant differences among farmers trained through different methods, nor does it find any significant differences in retention rates among farmers who have been to different training programs. Another probit model identifies farmers who have been visited by an agent as being more likely to discover an IPM practice through their own experimentation, indicating that farmers who have been visited by an agent have received enough knowledge to adapt IPM to different problems on their farm. Results of the study indicate that limited resource farms are well represented by their participation in the various training methods, but that a higher percentage of large farmers than small farmers in the sample have been visited by an agent or been to FFS. Informal diffusion of IPM information is found to be occurring among people in FFS villages for simple practices. However, for intermediate and complex practices, farmers who participated in FFS are no more likely to spread information to other people in their villages than are less intense formal training methods such as field days and agent visits. This result indicates that while FFS graduates may be likely to share simple practices with others, they should not be relied upon as the primary means of informally diffusing more complex practices to other farmers. The cost-effectiveness estimation incorporates components of the effectiveness evaluation along with the cost of administering the methods. The study calculates that agent visits are the most cost-effective method for diffusing simple and complex technologies and practices, while field days are the most cost-effective methods for extending intermediate technologies and practices. / Master of Science

Just and equitable responses to the disparate impacts of climate change on communities and individuals throughout the world are at the heart of the concept of climate justice. Commodification, in the context of my research, is the process of monetizing nature and livelihoods for the purpose of surplus accumulation and profit maximization. In this study, my aim was to contextualize the concepts of climate injustice, disaster capitalism, and the commodification of lives and livelihoods in the specific setting of disaster vulnerability in southwest coastal Bangladesh. By conducting a case study in Kamarkhola and Sutarkhali regions of southwest coastal Bangladesh, I utilized discourse analysis and content analysis of livelihood interviews, semi-structured interviews, and policy documents to demonstrate the conceptual interrelation among global climate change, climate injustice, disaster capitalism, and capitalist expansion in environmentally precarious areas. I argue that in Southwest Coastal Bangladesh, the vulnerability to disasters stems from a complex and multifaceted layer of social hierarchies and inequalities, entwined with factors such as class and power relations. I also argue that Inequalities in the political, economic, and social realms have a key role in imposing vulnerability on disadvantaged people living in ecologically vulnerable areas. The perpetuation of inequality is sustained by the expansion and accumulation of capital through the dispossession and exploitation of natural resources. The existing approaches to climate change adaptation in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh are deeply entrenched in neoliberal capitalism. The introduction of neoliberal economic policies, such as the privatization of state lands and the promotion of export-oriented aquaculture, created favorable conditions for capitalist expansion in environmentally vulnerable places through "accumulation by dispossession."

Women's empowerment is an important aim of the development activities of Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) in Bangladesh. In a patriarchal society, women experience discrimination and their participation in decision making processes often is not allowed in domestic, political and economic affairs. Most women's organizations mainly work to create a better, non-discriminatory, and equal society for women. To focus on this goal, these organizations often are not conscious of democracy at their own workplaces and equal participation of their members and employees in decision making. In addition, only a small amount of scholarship has been concerned with the structures and governance, organizational democracy, and women's participatory roles in organizational decision making. By using a multiple case study design, this research explores the ways four advocacy women's NGOs in Bangladesh promote women's empowerment and equality at the organizational level and how organizational structures and internal decision making processes help NGOs to achieve these goals. None of the organizations has pure democratic or bureaucratic structure and participatory decision making process. More democratic organizational structures or participatory decision making processes are more effective in promoting more cognitive and psychological empowerment of its members and employees. / Ph. D.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) technologies have proven to be effective at increasing agricultural productivity and have been credited for providing economic, health, and environmental benefits in many developing countries. In South Asia, population growth and the increasing demand for nutritious foods have put pressure on farmers to produce more food with a relatively inelastic supply of land. Productivity enhancing practices, like IPM, have helped some farmers to meet this demand; however, with over 50 million farmers in Bangladesh and Nepal it is difficult to reach them with information about new agricultural technologies. This study evaluates the current IPM dissemination strategy being implemented by the Bangladesh Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) and uses a linear programming (LP) model to propose alternative strategies that may extend the total benefits from IPM technologies. Additionally, using data from a household survey, a bivariate probit model and a two-step endogenous participation model are used to identify factors that may influence both knowledge and adoption of IPM practices in three regions of Nepal. The results from the LP model suggest that more farmers could be effectively reached by reallocating funding that is currently used for interpersonal communications (i.e. extension agent visits and farmer field schools) to more widespread methods such as mass media and field days. The model also suggests that a dynamic dissemination strategy is necessary to encourage adoption of IPM technologies with differing characteristics and levels of complexity. The econometric analysis suggests that farmers with "network linkages" to agricultural information and inputs, such as membership in a farmer organization, are more likely to be aware of IPM and to adopt IPM practices. The survey data also suggest that farmers who are members of Marketing Planning Committees (MPC) may be more likely to adopt more IPM practices when compared to non-members. Overall, the study suggests that strategically disseminating IPM information is vital to promote the adoption of these technologies in South Asia. / Master of Science

Yes / Mutations in the gyrase genes cause fluoroquinolone resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, the predictive value of these markers for clinical outcomes in patients with MDR-TB is unknown to date. The objective of this study was to determine molecular markers and breakpoints predicting second-line treatment outcomes in M. tuberculosis patients treated with fourth-generation fluoroquinolones. We analysed treatment outcome data in relation to the gyrA and gyrB sequences and MICs of ofloxacin, gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin for pretreatment M. tuberculosis isolates from 181 MDR-TB patients in Bangladesh whose isolates were susceptible to injectable drugs. The gyrA 90Val, 94Gly and 94Ala mutations were most frequent, with the highest resistance levels for 94Gly mutants. Increased pretreatment resistance levels (>2 mg/L), related to specific mutations, were associated with lower cure percentages, with no cure in patients whose isolates were resistant to gatifloxacin at 4 mg/L. Any gyrA 94 mutation, except 94Ala, predicted a significantly lower proportion of cure compared with all other gyrA mutations taken together (all non-94 mutants + 94Ala) [OR = 4.3 (95% CI 1.4-13.0)]. The difference in treatment outcome was not explained by resistance to the other drugs. Our study suggests that gyrA mutations at position 94, other than Ala, predict high-level resistance to gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin, as well as poor treatment outcome, in MDR-TB patients in whom an injectable agent is still effective.

Farmers around the world rely on IPM practices in order to increase their yields and reduce their losses due to pests. Assessing the impacts of previous IPM CRSP studies is crucial for successful continuance of the program and to provide meaningful recommendations to farmers. This thesis summarizes previous IPM CRSP impact studies, and provides additional impact assessments of IPM practices developed on the program. Scientist-questionnaires were sent to scientists in each IPM CRSP site around the world. Using the data from the questionnaire responses in combination with additional secondary information on elasticities, prices and quantities, economic surplus analyses were conducted. The tomato IPM program in Albania, the plantain IPM program in Ecuador, and the tomato IPM program in Uganda resulted in net present values of approximately $8 million, $7 million and $1 million, respectively. Sensitivity analyses for each case were also conducted, and net benefits ranged from $5 to 23 million in Albania, from $4 to 7 million in Ecuador, and from $0.03 to 3 million in Uganda. Additionally, an ordered probit analysis was conducted to determine the factors affecting adoption of IPM technologies in Bangladesh. The level of education, being a female, IPM training and awareness of pesticide alternatives were found to have positive and statistically significant impact on the adoption of IPM technologies in Bangladesh. / Master of Science

Arsenic has been discovered in the groundwater of Bangladesh and affects millions of people. Many parts of the country experiences elevated levels of As above the drinking water limit set by Bangladesh at 50 μg/L. Tube wells installed at a shallow depth is the main source of drinking water in Bangladesh for local communities. Previous investigation has identified elevated levels of As in these shallow tube wells. Color of sediments as well as depth below surface was also identified as important properties in determining As safe aquifers. Despite the knowledge surrounding the elevated As concentrations and mitigation efforts there has been a lack of large scale, successful mitigation methods. The problems have been identified as a lack of large scale knowledge transfer regarding the subsurface geology to local drillers and communities as well as a lack of coherent and country wide data capturing, management and storage. The aim of this study was to investigate how already captured data in Bangladesh from previous projects could be compiled, formatted, visualized and communicated to facilitate large scale knowledge transfer as well as increasing the understanding off what geological and hydrogeological data is necessary to accurately and with a high degree of confidence map the aquifers of Bangladesh. This study was conducted as a pilot study for aquifer mapping in the EPSC-DDM project together with the International Groundwater Research Group at KTH. To understand data necessity and how to effectively map aquifers in Bangladesh data from various sources needed to be compiled. The data was cleaned and investigated as 2D and 3D models. Hydrographs was created from water level data in GeoGIS. Water quality data was used together in modelling processes and alone to investigate the water quality of potential aquifer systems. The modelling was conducted in GeoGIS for 2D cross sections and Earth Volumetric Studios for 3D models. The results showed two distinct aquifer in the study area of Towakull union, at a depth of 50-150 m as well as around 200-250 meters. The shallow aquifer was deemed unsafe in terms of As concentrations while the deep was deemed safe. The results from the modelling indicated that data already gathered for previous projects could be used as a base for aquifer mapping. Lithological data with main grain size together with water quality data at depth was deemed as the minimum data needed for 3D model aquifer mapping and water level data as well as color of the sediments was deemed as important data to collect if possible. The results also indicated that automatic capturing and storage of data into one coherent format would greatly decrease the time of data cleaning before modelling as well as increasing the accuracy and limiting the need for interpretation of the modeler. In conclusion the usage of 2D or 3D models for aquifer mapping shows great promise and the usage of already captured data to create these models was possible. The models had the potential to be easily communicated and distributed in digital format or in print to facilitate large scale knowledge transfer and increase evidence-based decision making in Bangladesh. / Arsenik (As) har upptäckts i grundvattnet i Bangladesh och påverkar tillgången till vatten för miljontals människor. Stora delar av landet har områden med förhöjda halter av As, över 50 μg/L vilket är den nationella gränsen för dricksvatten. Tidigare forskning har visat att rörbrunnar är den till störst del accepterade åtgärdsmetoden för As-säkert dricksvatten bland lokala aktörer, detta på grund av att de är billiga att installera och enkla att använda. Färg på sediment på det djup där filtret till brunnarna installeras har visats ge indikation på om grundvattnet har låga eller höga halter av arsenik. Holocena sediment är ofta grå till mörkt gråa och innehåller höga halter löst arsenik medan de röda eller bruna sediment som blivit exponerade och oxiderade har visat sig ha låga halter av löst arsenik. Även om problematiken och åtgärdsmetoder kring arsenikförorening av grundvattnet i Bangladesh är väl dokumenterade är det fortfarande stora delar av befolkningen som inte har tillgång till rent dricksvatten. Bristen på resultat i åtgärder tros vara avsaknaden av kunskapsdelning och utbildning av lokalbefolkningen, vilka ofta är de som borrar och använder rörbrunnarna, samt att det saknas ett nationellt övergripande format för insamling, lagring och användning av geologisk och hydrogeologisk data. Den här studien skrevs tillsammans med EPSC-DDM som är ett projekt mellan KTH, SIDA, UNICEF och DPHE i Bangladesh. Målet med studien var att undersöka vilken typ av geologisk samt hydrogeologisk data som kunde användas för akvifärkartläggning på lokal nivå i Bangladesh. Vidare var det av intresse att förstå på vilket sätt denna data skulle användas och kommuniceras för att kunna förmedla kunskapen till lokala aktörer. Det var av intresse att använda redan insamlad data i Bangladesh. Tillgänglig geologisk och hydrogeologiska data samlades in och modellerades i 2D och i 3D för att kartlägga akvifärer på lokal skala i Bangladesh. Programvaran GeoGIS användes för 2D modelleringen och Earth Volumetric Studios användes vid 3D modelleringen. Grundvattennivådata användes för att skapa hydrografer som kunde användas tillsammans med de tillverkade modellerna. Studieområdet var Towakull union i Gowainghat upazilla, norra Bangladesh. Studieområdet valdes på grund av tillgång till olika dataformat och källor. Resultatet av studien visade att det troligen fanns två distinkta akvifärer, vilket är en ansamling av grundvatten som kan användas som en vattenresurs, i Towakull, Bangladesh, vilket var området för pilotstudien. De aktuella akvifärerna låg på ett djup av 50–150 meter samt 200–250 meter. Den grunda akvifären visade sig innehålla förhöjda halter av arsenik och ansågs vara osäker att använda som dricksvattentäkt. Den djupa akvifären verkade vara frånskild den ovanliggande grunda akvifären och innehöll lägre nivåer av arsenik. Modelleringsprocessen visade att tidigare insamlad data kan användas på ett effektivt sätt för att kartlägga akvifärer i Bangladesh, både i 2D och i 3D. För 3D modellering visade det sig att geologiska data och vattenkvalité var nödvändigt för att få ett resultat som kunde ge information med tillräcklig precision för att stödja lokala aktörer i deras beslutsfattande. Hydrografer samt färg på sediment gav mer säkerhet i kartläggningen men bedömdes inte vara nödvändig om de inte skulle vara tillgängligt. Automatisk insamling av data bedöms underlätta vid modelleringsprocessen då en stor del av problemet var att ”rengöra” och formatera data från olika källor till liknande format. Detta steg kan till stor del undvikas om data samlas in och lagras automatiskt på samma sätt i hela Bangladesh. Sammanfattningsvis visade pilotstudien att 2D- och 3D modellering är effektiva verktyg för att kartlägga akvifärer i Bangladesh med hjälp av redan insamlad data. Litologisk data och vattenkvalitéan sågs vara nödvändig för modelleringsprocessen, sedimentfärg och hydrografer var kraftfulla hjälpmedel. Resultaten av modelleringen bedöms ha hög potential för att kunna förmedlas till lokala aktörer, i till exempel en liten utskriven sammanfattningsrapport. Att gå över till automatisk insamling och lagring av data är avgörande för att göra data tillgängligt och kvalitetssäkrad och således för att säkra modelleringsprocessens kvalitet och potential för uppskalning.

The hijra community individuals are one of the most neglected and underprivileged sexual minority groups in Bangladesh. Historically this community has been excluded from mainstream society and was compelled to live and work in separate communal spaces. However, new policies of inclusion implemented by government and non-government organizations have resulted in many hijra individuals leaving their communities. In this research, I focused on how the hijra individuals of Bangladesh come out of their hijra communities to find work and accommodation in mainstream society. Based on 11 in-depth ethnographic field interviews and qualitative data analysis, I found that after leaving the community, the hijra individuals living in Dhaka enter a gendered borderland where they occupy a unique outsider-within position. They undertake different survival strategies to survive amongst harsh socio-economic conditions intersected by multiple modes of discrimination such as maintaining a new guru (leader) for social protection, developing support networks, and redefining their gender identity as ‘transgender,' provide the tools to survive life outside their community. Through these findings, I reflect on the ways poor sexual minority groups such as the hijra survive and use their limited resources to find access to housing and informal work. These findings will add to the limited research on hijra and enhance the understanding of the process of minority inclusion. It will help determine the needs of hijra individuals and implement better policies. However, there is scope for further research on hijra individuals across Bangladesh to accurately reflect their inclusion process and the different strategies they implement to survive in the bitter socio-economic condition intersected by multiple modes of discrimination.

Abstract This thesis investigated the national culture of the construction labourers in a migrant country and empirically found the impact of cultural behavior on the performance of construction projects and labourers while practicing the decent work indicators. The study culminates by helping to form a migration policy by both the sending and the receiving countries of migrants that would economically and socially benefit both the migrant labourer and his family at the individual level. This thesis therefore helps by adding to the theoretical knowledge and also in the successful completion of projects and successful temporary migration. The research involved multi-research methods, starting with the narratives of the construction labourers. The research methodology was further augmented through a case study approach with the participant observation method. The data were coded according to grounded theory into national cultural dimensions. Re-confirmation and cross-checking interviews were also conducted to confirm the correctness of the coding. The qualitative data collected were quantified to give meaning to the data collection through triangulation in data analysis. After introducing national cultures in the construction projects of the UAE, the national culture of the construction labourers within Geert Hofstede’s framework was identified, while observing the decent work practices indicators. This was achieved through narratives, observations and semi-structured interviews. The thesis investigates decent work practices indicators specific to the culture of migrant construction labourers from Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Chinese labourers in the UAE. The thesis reveals that the national culture of the migrant construction labourers in the UAE is not the same as that identified by Hofstede some four decades ago. Indian construction labourers revealed high Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI), Pakistani labourers showed high Masculinity (MAS), Bangladeshi labourers revealed low Long Term Orientation (LTO) and Individualism (IND) and Chinese construction labourers showed high IND and LTO. The study suggests that the management of cultural differences could help the successful completion of projects, which could be beneficial for both the migrant sending country and the host country and also for the individual migrant and his family. The study further investigated the difference in decent work practices in the UAE and the national culture (as seen in cultural behavior) of the migrant construction labourers in the UAE. Studying this difference in practice and learning about the cultural behavior of the construction labourers has economic and social implications for construction labourers, migrant receiving and sending countries. / Tiivistelmä Tässä väitöskirjassa tutkittiin toiseen maahan muuttaneiden rakennustyöntekijöiden kansallista kulttuuria ja todettiin empiirisiä tutkimusmenetelmiä käyttäen, kuinka kulttuurinen käyttäytyminen vaikuttaa rakennushankkeiden toteuttamiseen ja työntekijöiden työsuoritukseen, kun sovelletaan ihmisarvoisen työn indikaattoreita. Maahanmuuttajien lähtö- ja tulomaa voivat käyttää tämän tutkimuksen tuloksia apuna laatiessaan maahanmuuttopolitiikkaa, joka hyödyttäisi taloudellisesti ja yhteiskunnallisesti siirtotyöläistä ja tämän perhettä. Tämä väitöskirja auttaa toisin sanoen lisäämään teoreettista tietämystä ja sujuvaa tilapäistä maahanmuuttoa sekä saattamaan hankkeet onnistuneesti päätökseen. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin useita eri tutkimusmenetelmiä, ja lähtökohtana olivat rakennustyöntekijöiden omat kertomukset. Tutkimusmetodologiaa täydennettiin lisäksi tapaustutkimuksella käyttäen osallistuvan havainnoinnin menetelmää. Tutkimustiedot koodattiin käyttäen grounded theory -lähestymistavan mukaisia kansallisten kulttuurien ulottuvuuksia. Haastatteluille tehtiin lisäksi ristiintarkistus ja ne vahvistettiin uudelleen, jotta voitiin varmistua koodauksen paikkansapitävyydestä. Kerätty kvalitatiivinen aineisto ilmaistiin määrällisenä, jotta kerättyjä tietoja voitiin analysoida triangulaation avulla. Tutkimuksessa esiteltiin aluksi, miten kansalliset kulttuurit liittyvät Yhdistyneiden arabiemiirikuntien rakennushankkeisiin, minkä jälkeen määritettiin rakennustyöntekijöiden kansallinen kulttuuri käyttäen Geert Hofsteden teoriaa ja noudattaen ihmisarvoisen työn käytäntöjä koskevia indikaattoreita. Apuna käytettiin kertomuksia, havaintoja ja puolistrukturoituja haastatteluja. Väitöskirjassa tutkittiin rakennustyöntekijöitä, jotka olivat muuttaneet Yhdistyneisiin arabiemiirikuntiin Intiasta, Pakistanista, Bangladeshista ja Kiinasta. Tutkimuksessa todettiin, että ihmisarvoisen työn käytäntöjä koskevat indikaattorit ovat kytköksissä työntekijöiden omaan kulttuuriin. Väitöskirja paljastaa lisäksi, että Yhdistyneisiin arabiemiirikuntiin muuttaneiden rakennustyöntekijöiden kansallinen kulttuuri ei vastaa Hofsteden neljä vuosikymmentä sitten määrittämää kansallista kulttuuria. Intialaisilla rakennustyöntekijöillä havaittiin voimakasta epävarmuuden välttämistä, pakistanilaisilla työntekijöillä voimakasta maskuliinisuutta, bangladeshilaisilla työntekijöillä vähäistä pitkän tähtäimen orientaatiota ja individualismia ja kiinalaisilla rakennustyöntekijöillä puolestaan havaittiin voimakasta individualismia ja pitkän tähtäimen orientaatiota. Tutkimus osoittaa, että kulttuurieroja hallitsemalla voitaisiin edesauttaa hankkeiden viemistä onnistuneesti päätökseen, mikä puolestaan hyödyttäisi maahanmuuttajien lähtömaata ja isäntämaata sekä itse maahanmuuttajia ja heidän perheitään. Tutkimuksessa tutkittiin lisäksi, miten ihmisarvoisen työn käytännöt eroavat Yhdistyneissä arabiemiirikunnissa ja maahan muuttaneiden rakennustyöntekijöiden kansallisessa kulttuurissa (mikä puolestaan ilmenee kulttuurisessa käyttäytymisessä). Tämän eroavaisuuden ja rakennustyöntekijöiden kulttuurisen käyttäytymisen tutkimisella on taloudellisia ja yhteiskunnallisia vaikutuksia rakennustyöntekijöihin sekä maahanmuuttajien lähtö- ja tulomaihin.