In 2010, the obligation to audit was abolished in Sweden with the aim of promoting entrepreneurship and minimizing its costs. As a result, today the majority of small private limited companies choose not to have an audit. Furthermore, there is a negative trend in the audit industry as the number of qualified auditors has decreased significantly since the abolition of the audit obligation.   Considering the 2017 review report by Riksrevisionen, which concluded that the audit obligation should be reintroduced in Sweden, this thesis addresses the question of whether the audit obligation should be reintroduced in Sweden. Previous research in other geographical areas indicates that auditing has positive effects for companies by increasing the quality of their financial reports. Moreover, further research indicates that there are no compelling reasons to mandate auditing for small private companies and that the auditor could be replaced by an accounting consultant. This relatively understudied area is therefore worthy of investigation, partly because of the inconsistent results observed in previous research and partly because few studies are based on Swedish society. The objective of this thesis is to examine the various perspectives on the removal of the audit obligation and to contribute to the debate on whether a reintroduction should be considered. Additionally, the study aims to assess the impact of a potential reintroduction of the audit obligation on the quality of reporting for the companies concerned. The thesis addresses the roles of auditors and accounting consultants for small private limited companies in Sweden. Through the qualitative method of interviewing company managers, auditors, and accounting consultants, the positions of these stakeholders are elucidated.  The results of the study indicate that the majority of respondents do not believe that the audit obligation should be reintroduced in Sweden. This is because the results suggest that an authorized accounting consultant can effectively serve as a substitute for the auditor for small private limited companies, thereby compensating for the potential loss of quality that may arise in the absence of an auditor. Additionally, the results demonstrate that auditing provides a quality stamp, but that the benefits of this do not exceed the costs incurred by the companies. The primary rationale for opposing the reintroduction of auditing is that the current audit methodology is ill-suited to the needs of small private limited companies, resulting in excessive costs. Moreover, the results strongly suggest that some form of external control is necessary, rather than mandatory auditing. Potential solutions include increased controls from Skatteverket or requiring an authorized accounting consultant. In conclusion, the findings demonstrate that auditing is a valuable practice with beneficial effects for both businesses and society at large. Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that there are currently insufficient compelling reasons to advocate for the reinstatement of mandatory audits in Sweden.

O objetivo deste estudo é verificar se a apresentação das despesas por função na DRE proporciona menor capacidade preditiva aos usuários, especialmente aos analistas de mercado, comparada à apresentação das despesas por natureza. O CPC 26 permite duas formas de apresentação das despesas na DRE, função ou natureza, o que é caracterizado como uma escolha contábil de apresentação. No entanto, se a empresa optar pela divulgação por função, deve apresentar, também, a informação por natureza em nota explicativa, dado que essa informação apresenta capacidade preditiva, segundo o IASB. No Brasil, a lei 6.404/76 induz a maioria das empresas a divulgar as despesas por função, o que torna a informação por natureza disponível, também, para a maioria das companhias. Existem estudos que analisam como os critérios de mensuração e reconhecimento afetam a capacidade preditiva da informação divulgada. Outros trabalhos sugerem que as escolhas contábeis de reconhecimento e mensuração podem interferir na acurácia das projeções dos analistas de mercado. Entretanto, a forma como a escolha de apresentação dos itens na DRE interfere na capacidade preditiva dos usuários, especialmente para os analistas de mercado, não está suficientemente clara na literatura. Mais especificamente com relação à forma de apresentação das despesas, não se sabe se a escolha de um método em detrimento de outro pode impactar a qualidade da informação para o usuário. Então, foram analisadas 54 empresas brasileiras de capital aberto, pertencentes a seis setores da BOVESPA, durante um período de cinco anos, por meio da utilização de análise de dados em painel. De um modo geral, os resultados sugerem que a informação por natureza é mais preditiva para o usuário e que os analistas podem errar menos em suas projeções de resultado com o uso da informação sobre despesas apresentada por natureza, dado que esta informação é disponibilizada em nota explicativa nos demonstrativos contábeis das companhias brasileiras. Assim, o estudo traz evidências de que a escolha da forma de apresentação das despesas na DRE não é indiferente para o usuário, já que pode afetar a sua capacidade de predizer fluxos de caixa futuros. Além disso, como contribuição prática, espera-se mostrar que os analistas podem melhorar a acurácia de suas previsões ao utilizarem o método de apresentação das despesas por natureza para realizar suas projeções, especialmente quando analisam empresas com alto nível de custos fixos. / The aim of this study is to verify if the presentation of the expenses by function in the income statement provides less predictability to the users, especially to the market analysts, compared to the presentation of expenses by nature. CPC 26 allows two forms of presentation of expenses at the income statement, by function and by nature, what is characterized as an accounting choice of presentation. However, if the company opts for disclosure by function, it must also present information by nature in an explanatory note, given that this information presents predictive capacity, according to the IASB. In Brazil, the Law No. 6.404 /76 induces most of companies to disclose expenses by function, which makes the information by nature also available for most companies. Studies had already analyzed how measurement and recognition criteria affect a predictive capacity of the information disclosed. Other works suggest that accounting recognition and measurement choices may interfere in analysts\' forecasts. However, the way in which the choice of presentation of items in the income statement interferes in the predictive capacity of users, especially for market analysts, is not sufficiently clear in the literature. More specifically, regarding to expenses presentation, it is not known whether the choice of one method over another can generate differences for the predictive capacity of the user. It was analyzed a sample of 54 Brazilian publicly companies belonging to six sectors of BOVESPA over a five-year period, using panel data analysis. Overall, the results suggest that information by nature is more predictive for the user and that analysts can improve the accuracy of their forecasts using the information of expenses presented by nature, since this information is available in an explanatory note in the financial statements of Brazilian companies. Thus, the study provides evidence that the choice of expenses presentation at the income statement is important to the user, as it may affect their ability to predict future cash flows. Moreover, as a practical contribution, this study shows that analysts can improve the accuracy of their forecasts by using the method of presenting expenses by nature to carry out their projections, especially when analyzing companies with high fixed costs.

Redovisningskvalitet på små aktiebolag har påvisats minska sedan revisionskravet slopades. Det förekommer en diskussion om huruvida revisionskravet behöver återinföras eller om gränsvärdena för revisionsplikten ska utökas. Debatten är för tillfället delad, en part menar att gränsvärdena för när aktiebolag ska ha revisor ska höjas. Den andra menar att fördelen med att även små aktiebolag har revisor är att det säkerställer kvaliteten på redovisningen. Att redovisningskvaliteten säkerställs är av intresse för intressenter till små aktiebolag på grund av informationsasymmetrin som råder. Det finns fördelar för bolagen med att inte omfattas av revisionsplikt, den främsta fördelen är ekonomiska lättnader för bolagen. Studien exemplifierar konsekvenser som kan drabba fler än de intressenter som är närmast anknyta till bolaget. Samhället kan drabbas negativt om bolagen inte sköter sin redovisning alternativt begår ekonomisk brottslighet som en konsekvens av att extern granskning av räkenskaperna saknas. Tidigare forskning visar att det föreligger ett samband mellan oväntade periodiseringar och redovisningskvalitet. Studien som genomförts påvisar att det föreligger ett samband mellan att redovisningskvaliteten har minskat och slopandet av revisionsplikten. Av resultatet framgår att kvaliteten på redovisningen, som undersökts genom oväntade periodiseringar, har minskat för små aktiebolag inom byggbranschen, sedan revisionskravet har slopats. Konsekvenser av att revisionsplikten slopats kan leda till att intressenter inte förlitar sig på bolaget. Det kan skada både bolag och intressenter att förtroendet för små aktiebolag minskar som en följd av att det inte längre finns ett krav på revisor. Undersökningen som gjorts påvisar att redovisningskvaliteten har minskat över tid och som följd har belastningen på myndigheter ökat, sedan revisionsplikten slopades. / The quality of the accounting in small companies has proven to decline since the audit requirement was abolished. An ongoing discussion exists concerning whether the audit requirement should be implemented once again or if the limit values should be expanded. The parties in the discussion currently have different opinions where one party argues that the limit value concerning the audit requirement should increase. The other party claims that the pro of small companies using an auditor is that the auditor ensures the quality in the financial reports. High quality in the accounting is of interest for the stakeholders of small companies since information asymmetry is present. There are pros for companies that are not obligated to use an auditor, where the major pro is economic relief for the companies. However, except for the stakeholders with the closest connection to the company, consequences can also affect other parties. Society could be negatively affected if companies produce inadequate information in the financial reports or if the companies commit economic crime which are both consequences of the lack of external auditing of the financial information. Previously research indicate a relationship between unexpected accruals and accounting quality. The results indicate that the quality of the accounting, measured through unexpected accruals, has declined for small companies within the building sector, since the audit requirement was abolished. Consequences of the abolishment of the audit requirement could be that the stakeholders don't trust the company. Lost trust in small companies as a consequence of the abolishment of the audit requirement could hurt both the small companies and the stakeholders. The study proves that the quality of the accounting has decreased and the load on the authorities has increased over time, after the audit requirement was abolished.

O objetivo deste estudo é verificar se a apresentação das despesas por função na DRE proporciona menor capacidade preditiva aos usuários, especialmente aos analistas de mercado, comparada à apresentação das despesas por natureza. O CPC 26 permite duas formas de apresentação das despesas na DRE, função ou natureza, o que é caracterizado como uma escolha contábil de apresentação. No entanto, se a empresa optar pela divulgação por função, deve apresentar, também, a informação por natureza em nota explicativa, dado que essa informação apresenta capacidade preditiva, segundo o IASB. No Brasil, a lei 6.404/76 induz a maioria das empresas a divulgar as despesas por função, o que torna a informação por natureza disponível, também, para a maioria das companhias. Existem estudos que analisam como os critérios de mensuração e reconhecimento afetam a capacidade preditiva da informação divulgada. Outros trabalhos sugerem que as escolhas contábeis de reconhecimento e mensuração podem interferir na acurácia das projeções dos analistas de mercado. Entretanto, a forma como a escolha de apresentação dos itens na DRE interfere na capacidade preditiva dos usuários, especialmente para os analistas de mercado, não está suficientemente clara na literatura. Mais especificamente com relação à forma de apresentação das despesas, não se sabe se a escolha de um método em detrimento de outro pode impactar a qualidade da informação para o usuário. Então, foram analisadas 54 empresas brasileiras de capital aberto, pertencentes a seis setores da BOVESPA, durante um período de cinco anos, por meio da utilização de análise de dados em painel. De um modo geral, os resultados sugerem que a informação por natureza é mais preditiva para o usuário e que os analistas podem errar menos em suas projeções de resultado com o uso da informação sobre despesas apresentada por natureza, dado que esta informação é disponibilizada em nota explicativa nos demonstrativos contábeis das companhias brasileiras. Assim, o estudo traz evidências de que a escolha da forma de apresentação das despesas na DRE não é indiferente para o usuário, já que pode afetar a sua capacidade de predizer fluxos de caixa futuros. Além disso, como contribuição prática, espera-se mostrar que os analistas podem melhorar a acurácia de suas previsões ao utilizarem o método de apresentação das despesas por natureza para realizar suas projeções, especialmente quando analisam empresas com alto nível de custos fixos. / The aim of this study is to verify if the presentation of the expenses by function in the income statement provides less predictability to the users, especially to the market analysts, compared to the presentation of expenses by nature. CPC 26 allows two forms of presentation of expenses at the income statement, by function and by nature, what is characterized as an accounting choice of presentation. However, if the company opts for disclosure by function, it must also present information by nature in an explanatory note, given that this information presents predictive capacity, according to the IASB. In Brazil, the Law No. 6.404 /76 induces most of companies to disclose expenses by function, which makes the information by nature also available for most companies. Studies had already analyzed how measurement and recognition criteria affect a predictive capacity of the information disclosed. Other works suggest that accounting recognition and measurement choices may interfere in analysts\' forecasts. However, the way in which the choice of presentation of items in the income statement interferes in the predictive capacity of users, especially for market analysts, is not sufficiently clear in the literature. More specifically, regarding to expenses presentation, it is not known whether the choice of one method over another can generate differences for the predictive capacity of the user. It was analyzed a sample of 54 Brazilian publicly companies belonging to six sectors of BOVESPA over a five-year period, using panel data analysis. Overall, the results suggest that information by nature is more predictive for the user and that analysts can improve the accuracy of their forecasts using the information of expenses presented by nature, since this information is available in an explanatory note in the financial statements of Brazilian companies. Thus, the study provides evidence that the choice of expenses presentation at the income statement is important to the user, as it may affect their ability to predict future cash flows. Moreover, as a practical contribution, this study shows that analysts can improve the accuracy of their forecasts by using the method of presenting expenses by nature to carry out their projections, especially when analyzing companies with high fixed costs.

Det oundvikliga beroendet av digitalisering och IT-system i dagens verksamheter och organisationer ställer krav på dagens arbetskraft att öka sina IT-kunskaper för att kunna integrera och kommunicera med nya datasystem för en mer effektiv verksamhet. Inte minst lika viktigt blir det för redovisningsekonomer som sköter verksamhetens finansiella redovisning då de måste kunna säkerställa att den redovisningsdata som framställs och levereras med hjälp av IT är felfri och uppnår kvalitet. Bristen på kunskap inom IT kan riskera att fel i redovisningsdata inte upptäcks och därmed påverkar redovisningsdatakvalitet. Detta i sin tur riskerar påverka redovisningskvalitet i den slutliga finansiella rapporteringen. Kommunikationen mellan avdelningarna riskerar också bli lidande då de med olika kunskaper har svårt att förstå varandra.Studiens syfte är att försöka bidra med kunskap om hur kunskapsskillnader i digital gundkunskap kan påverka säkerställandet av redovisningsdatakvalitet samt ge insyn i hur arbetet med detta kan gå till i praktiken. Med hjälp av tidigare forskning togs en analysmodell fram som illustrerar identifierade faktorers påverkansordning av redovisningsdatakvalitet; kunskapsskillnader → intern kontroll → redovisningsdatakvalitet.Studien tillämpar en instrumentell fallstudiedesign med en kvalitativ forskningsansats för att besvara frågeställningen. Två fokusgruppsintervjuer utfördes vid två olika tillfällen med respondenter från redovisningsavdelningen och IT-avdelningen från samma företag. Data transkriberades och kodades med hjälp av färgkodning för att tydliggöra de faktorer som utgör utgångspunkten i analysmodellen. En enkätundersökning genomfördes på resterande anställda på respektive avdelning för att komplettera resultaten från intervjuerna.Resultatet av studien visade att kunskapsskillnaderna har liten eller ingen alls direkt påverkan på redovisningsdatakvalitet utan snarare påverkar den interna kontrollen desto mer utifrån externa faktorer som tillkom. / The inevitable dependence on digitization and IT systems in today's operations and organizations demands the current workforce to increase their IT skills in order to be able to integrate and communicate with new computer systems for a more efficient business. It is equally important for financial accountants who’s responsible for the business’s financial reporting, since they must be able to ensure that the accounting data produced and delivered using IT is correct and of high quality. The lack of IT skills can increase the risk of errors in accounting data not detected and thus further affect the accounting data quality. This in turn risks affecting the accounting quality in the final financial reporting. The communication between the departments could also suffer due to the knowledge gaps between them that could make it difficult to understand each other.The aim of the study is to contribute with knowledge about how the differences in knowledge can affect the work in ensuring accounting data quality and give insight into how this work can be realized in practice. With the help of previous research, an analysis model was developed that illustrates identified factors and their influence on accounting data quality; knowledge gaps → internal control → accounting data quality.The study applies an instrumental case study with a qualitative research approach. Two focus group interviews were conducted on two different occasions with respondents from the accounting department and the IT department, both from the same company. Data was transcribed and coded using color coding to clarify the factors that form the basis of the analysis model. A survey was conducted with the other employees to complement and confirm the results found from the interviews.The result of the study showed that the differences in knowledge have little or no direct impact on accounting data quality, but rather affect the internal control, based on external factors that came into light during the analysis of the result. A revised analysis model was developed based on the result and replaced the initial hypothetical model.

This dissertation is concerned with the relationship between accounting earnings and stock prices. It consists of three empirical papers, all using a sample of firms listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange (1990-2008). The first paper documents the existence of a drift in stock prices subsequent to quarterly earnings announcements. Two interesting empirical observations are that the drift is only significant for longer holding periods and that the drift on the short position, i.e. after bad earnings news, is negligible. The lack of downward drift on the short position is interpreted as an indication of the post-earnings announcement drift, at least partly, being explained by investors demanding a compensation for a risk factor that is omitted in the test design. The second paper illustrates under what conditions information risk in the earnings signal might explain a low announcement reaction and a price drift in the post-announcement period. It is hypothesized that two earnings signals – based either on GAAP earnings or core earnings – have different levels of information uncertainty with respect to how they depict the value creation of the firm. In the empirical sections, it is concluded that the low immediate announcement reaction and high post-announcement drift for the GAAP earnings signal is due to this signal being perceived by investors as containing more uncertainty than the core earnings signal. It is argued that this uncertainty might be due to GAAP earnings encompassing items that prior research has shown more likely to be manipulated and/or to contain estimation error. The positive association between information risk and expected return is further investigated in the third paper, where information risk is measured by earnings quality metrics. Using a new approach to estimate the implied cost of capital, it is found that Swedish investors demand a higher expected return for firms with poor earnings quality, i.e. firms associated with higher information risk. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan i Stockholm, 2011

This thesis investigates whether IFRS adoption has led to an increase in the relevance of accounting information for investment decisions. Furthermore, the effects of IFRS are implicitly compared across accounting traditions. As such,  the effects of IFRS on the “quality” of financial reporting are measured based on the cases of listed firms in Germany and listed firms in the UK. This study approaches the effects of IFRS on the quality of financial reporting from two angles. First a review of the academic literature is done to determine whether there has been a general consensus about the effects of IFRS adoption on financial reporting of listed firms in Germany and the UK. As a result of this literature study, a number of propositions are deduced about the effects of IFRS. Subsequently, the investigation of the effects of IFRS takes a statistical perspective. Financial and accounting data are obtained for two samples, one of German listed firms and another of UK listed firms. A number of empirical models are used to determine the quality of financial reporting, including the earnings-returns association (Lev ,1989; Lev & Zarowin, 1999), asymmetric sensitivity of earnings and asymmetric persistence of earnings (Basu, 1997), and the market-to-book ratios (Roychowdhury & Watts, 2003). Additionally, a new tool is introduced for a joint interpretation of the econometric test results, leading potentially to a new method of financial report analysis under dynamic regulatory conditions. Significant statistical evidence is found suggesting a drastic reduction (to the point of complete elimination) in income smoothing in Germany corresponding to the transition from the German national GAAP to IFRS. Additionally, with the introduction of IFRS, the information content of accounting earnings in German firms appears to have increased substantially, while market-to-book ratios have converged towards “1”. On the other hand, the introduction of IFRS in the UK corresponds to statistical evidence consistent with a shift from asymmetric timeliness of earnings under UK GAAP to a significant downward bias in earnings under IFRS. The study also shows significant inter-industry differences in the effects of IFRS that suggest that the inconsistencies in the results of previous studies may have been due to the significant noise created by diverse samples, or due to biased industry representations in the data.

Globalization has led to the growth of international financial markets, as one of the results, the EU adopted IFRS in 2005 to meet the need of accounting globalization and harmonization. This action has triggered a debate about whether the adoption of IFRS is beneficial to accounting quality and information comparability. Meanwhile, China, playing a key role in the global economic development stage, realizes the importance of accounting harmonization and attempts to move towards the IFRS as well. However, to reach the goal that the Chinese companies produce financial statements that are the same as those that apply IFRS, there is still a long way to go. The purpose of this thesis is to examine whether the adoption of IFRS by EU has enhanced the quality of financial reporting and accounting information comparability. Additionally, the thesis further identified the seminal undertakings for the convergence of IFRS in Europe and pointed out the implication for China’s convergence with IFRS. The empirical findings in this thesis were obtained through qualitative interviews. The empirical findings suggest that accounting quality and information comparability has been enhanced with EU’s strong and full enforcement with IFRS. With the confidence in IFRS which is gained from the success of the EU’s adoption of IFRS, a coherent result was found that the convergence towards IFRS would also benefit China in accounting quality and information comparability, and further lead to more international investments. However, when it comes to the question whether China should emulate EU’s example to adopt IFRS directly or keep CAS (Chinese Accounting Standards) which is similar to IFRS, two mixed opinions were obtained basically from Europe side and China side. Through in-depth analysis with these empirical findings, the conclusion is that it is necessary for China to take steps to build intensive programs to enhance its capacity of the adoption of IFRS, so that it could adapt itself to the fact that the IFRS is already making its way around the world as a single set of high quality global accounting standards.

Mindre företag är viktiga för den samhällsekonomiska utvecklingen och för skapandet av nyaarbetstillfällen. Lån har visat sig vara en viktig finansieringskälla för dessa företag, men pågrund av informationsasymmetri och högre operationella kostnader har tillgången tillkonkurrenskraftig lånefinansiering framhållits vara problematisk. Den externa redovisningenkan användas för att minska informationsasymmetri och reducera detta problem.Redovisningskvalitet, upplevd revisionskvalitet och revisionens utfall utgör delar av denexterna redovisningen, vilka i tidigare studier visat sig påverka företags kostnad för lånatkapital. Svenska privata mindre företag är en grupp av företag som tidigare inte behandlats idetta avseende och syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur dessa företags kostnad förlånat kapital påverkas av redovisningskvalitet, upplevd revisionskvalitet och revisionensutfall. Med hjälp av årsredovisningar från ett stickprov om 395 slumpvis utvalda företag ochen regressionsanalys besvaras studiens problemformulering. Hur påverkar den externaredovisningen svenska privata mindre företags kostnad för lånat kapital? Resultatet av dennastudie visar att redovisningskvalitet och revisionens utfall är delar av den externaredovisningen som påverkar svenska privata mindre företags kostnad för lånat kapital, medannågon påverkan inte kunde påvisas gällande den upplevda revisionskvaliteten. Svenskaprivata mindre företag med låg redovisningskvalitet har lägre kostnad för lånat kapital och enoren revisionsberättelse innebär högre kostnad. Detta ger såväl praktiska som teoretiskaimplikationer. Exempelvis tyder resultatet på att företag i viss mån kan vidta manipulerandeåtgärder som sänker redovisningskvaliteten och genom detta förfarande sänka kostnaden förlånat kapital. För långivare kan resultatet fungera som en varningssignal och belysa vikten avatt inte betrakta siffrorna i årsredovisningen som en obestridlig sanning. Teoretisk ges ettbidrag från den svenska kontexten. Resultatet i detta bidrag skiljer sig delvis från resultat itidigare studier, genomförda i andra kontexter. / Small firms are important for economic growth and the creation of new job opportunities.Loans are an important source of financing for these firms, but due to information asymmetryand relatively higher operational costs, small firms’ access to debt capital at a competitiveprice have been shown to be problematic. Firms’ financial reports can be used to lowerinformation asymmetry between the firm and its creditors and therefore reduce this problem.Prior studies have found that accounting quality, perceived audit quality and audit outcomeare parts of the financial report which can affect firms’ cost of debt. Swedish private smallfirms has not been studied in this field of research and the purpose of this study is therefore toexamine how these firms’ cost of debt is affected by accounting quality, perceived auditquality and audit outcome. With a sample of 395 randomly selected firms a regressionanalysis is used to answer the study’s research question. How does the financial report affectSwedish private small firms’ cost of debt? The result show that accounting quality and auditoutcome are parts of the financial report that can affect firms’ cost of debt, while nosignificant difference in cost of debt could be found due to differences in perceived auditquality. Swedish private small firms with low accounting quality have lower cost of debt andthose that receive a modified auditor report have higher costs. This result has both practicaland theoretical implications. The result suggests that firms, to some extent, can lower theircost of debt by lowering their accounting quality through manipulating their financial reports.To creditors, the result can be viewed as a warning signal to not blindly trust in the accuracyof the numbers that are presented. Theoretically this study contributes with a result from theSwedish context, a result that in some ways differ from those of studies done in othercontexts.

Dissertation interfaces two current accounting issues: International Financial Reporting Standards and financial reporting quality. Theoretical framework begins with historical development and contemporary position of IFRS. It is followed by financial accounting quality where overview of methods is used for assessment of accounting quality. The literature underpinning represents the final part of theoretical part. Dissertation examines publicly traded Czech companies on Prague stock exchange and together their financial statements are presented under Czech accounting standards and later on switched on International Financial Reporting Standards. Final sample consists of 15 companies (222 firm-year observations) during period 1993-2013. World accepted models were adjusted before its application to be more convenient for Czech environment. Research results show that there are only limited improvements in financial reporting quality in IFRS period, only some companies are models applicable and therefore law and professional environment play significant role within quantitative methods.