A piplartina é um alcaloide natural conhecido por apresentar diversas atividades biológicas, onde se destaca a ação anticancerígena. Esse produto natural apresentou atividade seletiva frente a vários tipos de células cancerígenas, sendo assim considerado promissor para o desenvolvimento de fármacos. O conhecimento do metabolismo de produtos naturais bioativos é uma importante e necessária etapa para avaliar a eficácia e segurança dessas substâncias. Os micro-organismos são amplamente utilizados em estudos de metabolismo, uma vez que catalisam reações quimio-, régio-, e estereoespecíficas, que muitas vezes são semelhantes às catalisadas pelos seres humanos. Nesse contexto, esse trabalho teve o objetivo de estudar o metabolismo microbiano da piplartina pelos fungos endofíticos Papulaspora immersa SS13 e Penicillium crustosum VR4, de solo Mucor rouxii NRRL 1894, e de coleção comercial Cunninghamella echinulata ATCC 8688a e Beauveria bassiana ATCC 7159. Os experimentos de biotransformação foram monitorados por UPLC-DAD-MS e UPLC-DAD-MS/MS. Todos os fungos utilizados biotransformaram a piplartina, sendo que 14 substâncias majoritárias foram identificadas como produtos de biotransformação nos experimentos em pequena escala. A piplartina e seus derivados apresentaram fragmentações características em IES-EM/EM que foram explicadas utilizando cálculos computacionais. O estudo dessas fragmentações permitiu a identificação e proposição das alterações estruturais que ocorreram nos metabólitos formados. Os fungos P. crustosum VR4 e B. bassiana ATCC 7159 foram selecionados para realizar os experimentos de biotransformação em escala ampliada, pois foram capazes de formar a maior diversidade de derivados da piplartina. Cinco substâncias foram isoladas e identificadas por RMN de 1H, RMN de 13C, HMQC, HMBC, COSY e HRESIMS. Essas substâncias não tinham sido obtidas por biotransformação microbiana anteriormente, sendo que uma ainda não foi descrita na literatura. Foram identificados principalmente produtos formados a partir de reações semelhantes às do metabolismo humano de fase I, como reduções, hidroxilações e hidrólises. Dessa forma, podemos concluir que as culturas microbianas são uma ferramenta útil para estudos preliminares de metabolismo, e para obter padrões de metabólitos que podem ser formados pelo metabolismo humano. / Piplartine is a natural alkaloid recognized by its biological properties, especially the anticancer activity. This natural product showed selective activity against several cancer cells lines, thus being considered a promising hit for drug development. Studies of bioactive natural products metabolism are an important and necessary step for the evaluation of their efficacy and safety. Microorganisms have been widely employed in metabolism studies, since they may catalyze chemo-, regio- and stereospecific reactions that are similar to human metabolism. This work aimed to study the microbial metabolism of piplartine by different fungal strains: the endophytes Penicillium crustosum VR4 and Papulaspora immersa SS13, the soil strain Mucor rouxii NRRL 1894, and the commercial collection strains Cunninghamella echinulata ATCC 8688a and Beauveria bassiana ATCC 7159. Biotransformation experiments were monitored by UPLC-DAD-MS and UPLC-DADMS/ MS. All the screened fungi were able to biotransform piplartine, and 14 compounds were identified as major biotransformation products in the small scale experiments. Piplartine and its derivatives showed characteristics fragmentations on ESI-MS/MS, which were explained using computer calculations. These fragmentation studies allowed the identification and structural proposition of piplartine metabolites. The fungi P. crustosum VR4 and B. bassiana ATCC 7159 were selected to perform the large scale biotransformation experiments, since they were capable to produce a large diversity of piplartine derivatives. Five compounds were isolated and identified by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, HMQC, HMBC, COSY and HRESIMS data. The isolated products had never been previously identified by microbial biotransformation, and one of them was found to be novel in the literature. All the identified and isolated compounds have been produced by reactions similar to those that occur in phase I of human metabolism, such as reduction, hydroxylation and hydrolysis reactions. Thus, we can conclude that the microbial cultures are useful tools for preliminary metabolism studies, and to obtain chemical standards similar to those produced by human metabolism

Submitted in complete fulfillment for the Degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016. / Plants have provided a source of medicine from the beginning of human history and are the core of modern medicine. Moreover, plant based drug discovery has led to the development of various anticancer drugs (such as vincristine, vinblastine, etoposide, paclitaxel, camptothecin, topotecan and irinotecan). The use of botanical, phytochemical, biological and molecular techniques have facilitated the discovery of anthraquinones from Ceratotheca triloba that can inhibit the human topoisomerase II enzyme (target for anticancer drugs) and kill cancer cells. However, the C. triloba plant has not been extensively studied for its anticancer activity. Therefore, the aim of this study was to further investigate the anticancer activity of C. triloba and determine the classes of compounds that contributed towards its activity. In this study the leaf and root extracts were prepared by using hexane, DCM, hexane: DCM (1:1), methanol and/or water. These extracts were examined for their growth inhibitory potential on three cancer cell lines (A375 [melanoma], MDA-MB-231[breast] and WHCO1 [esophageal]) by using the MTT assay. Then, different mobile phases were prepared for optimizing the separation of the compounds of the active extract by TLC. Column chromatography was performed with the active extract by using five mobile phases (hexane : DCM [60 : 40, 40 : 60], DCM, DCM : ethyl acetate [90 : 10, 70 : 30, 60 : 40, 50 : 50, 50 : 60, 30: 60, 20 : 80], ethyl acetate and ethyl acetate: methanol [80 : 20, 70 : 30, 50 : 50]). The fractions collected from the column were examined for their growth inhibitory potential on two melanoma cell lines (A375 and UACC-62). The IC50 and TGI (total growth inhibition) values of the active fractions were determined. Also, the apoptosis inducing effects of the active fractions and standards (camptothecin and doxorubicin) were determined by using flow cytometer based assays (FITC annexin assay, PE active caspase 3 assay and BD MitoScreen assay). Subsequently, the chemical structures of the compounds that contributed towards the activity of these fractions were obtained by EI-LC-MS analysis. The results demonstrated that the hexane root extract exhibited the best percentage of growth inhibition (%GI) on all three cancer cell lines. The separation of the compounds of the hexane root extract was optimized on TLC plates by using different ratios of hexane and DCM. Column chromatography allowed for fractionation of this extract. Purified compounds were not obtained due to co-elution. Further research would have to be conducted to obtain purified compounds. This may involve the use of mini-column chromatography and PTLC. Overall a total of ten combined fractions were collected from the column. Four of these fractions (F2, F4, F5 and F8) displayed a high %GI on the A375 and UACC-62 cell lines. Moreover, fraction F4 was the most active fraction as it had the lowest IC50 (0.70 µg.ml-1 [A375] and 0.39 µg.ml-1 [UACC-62]) and TGI (12.50 µg.ml-1[A375] and 25 µg.ml-1 [UACC-62]) values in comparison to the other fractions. All four fractions induced depolarization of the mitochondria membrane potential (ΔΨ), caspase 3 activation, early apoptosis (phospholipid phosphatidylserine exposure) and/or late apoptosis in the melanoma cells. The results also revealed that fraction F4 (25 µg.ml-1) induced depolarization of the ΔΨ in a higher percentage of A375 (78.11%) and UACC-62 (87.4%) cells than the other fractions and standards. This fraction also induced caspase 3 activation in a high percentage of A375 (90.56%) and UACC-62 (96.78%) cells. Therefore fraction F4 was also the most active fraction in terms of apoptosis activity. Based on our results and literature findings we can deduce that the active fractions induced the intrinsic or extrinsic (type II) apoptosis pathway in the melanoma cells. Six classes of compounds were identified from the four active fractions. These were: benzothiophenones, benzopyranones, naphthoquinones, anthraquinones, androstanes and quinazolines. In conclusion, this is the first study that evaluated the growth inhibition potential of the leaf and root extracts of C. triloba on a panel of cancer cells. This research indicated that the hexane root extract displayed the best levels of cell growth inhibition. The active constituents of this extract were isolated into four fractions which elicited apoptosis inducing effects that promoted the extrinsic (type II) or intrinsic apoptosis pathway in the melanoma cells. Furthermore, fraction F4 contained the most active compounds from C. triloba as it had the lowest IC50 and TGI values (in comparison to the other fractions) and induced depolarization of the ΔΨ in the highest percentage of melanoma cells. It was confirmed that six classes of compounds were accountable for the anticancer activity of these fractions. Thus, the C. triloba plant is a rich source of anticancer compounds. / D

Στη παρούσα εργασία, μελετήθηκαν διάφοροι τύποι αρσονολιποσωμάτων, ως προς την επίδραση της λιπιδικής τους σύστασης στην σταθερότητα τους, την αλληλεπίδραση τους με φυσιολογικά και καρκινικά κύτταρα και την βιοκατανομή τους. Παρασκευάστηκαν sonicated αρσονολιποσώματα με 1,2-rac-διάκυλοοξυπροπυλ-αρσονικό οξύ με παλμιτόυλ- παράπλευρες αλυσίδες (αρσονολιπίδιο, Ars), χοληστερόλη (Chol) και φωσφατιδυλοχολίνη (PC) [PC-based αρσονολιποσώματα] ή 1,2-διστεαρόυλ-sn-φωσφατιδυλοχολίνη (DSPC) [DSPC-based αρσονολιποσώματα], με αναλογίες PC/Ars/Chol και DSPC/Ars/Chol ίσες με 12:8:10 mol:mol:mol. Επίσης παρασκευάστηκαν παρόμοια αρσονολιποσώματα με αναλογίες PC/Ars/Chol και DSPC/Ars/Chol ίσες με 17:3:10 mol:mol:mol. Παρασκευάστηκαν επίσης αρσονολιποσώματα που, εκτός από αρσονολιπίδιο, χοληστερόλη, φωσφατιδυλοχολίνη ή 1,2-διστεαρόυλ-sn-φωσφατιδυλοχολίνη περιείχαν στην σύσταση τους και PEG2000-λιπίδιο (πολυαιθυλενογλυκόλη, Μ.Β. 2000, συζευγμένη με 1,2-διστεαρόυλ-φωσφατιδυλοαιθανολαμίνη, DSPE-PEG2000) [PEGylated PC- και DSPC-based αρσονολιποσώματα]. Εκτός από τα παραπάνω αρσονολιποσώματα, παρασκευάστηκαν και sonicated λιποσώματα με χοληστερόλη και PC ή DSPC σε αναλογίες PC:Chol και DSPC:Chol 2:1 mol:mol («συμβατικά» λιποσώματα, χωρίς αρσονολιπίδιο). Μελετήθηκε αρχικά η τοξικότητα όλων των παραπάνω λιποσωμάτων έναντι διάφορων τύπων καρκινικών κυττάρων: ανθρώπινων λευχαιμικών κυττάρων (ΝΒ4), κυττάρων από καρκίνο του προστάτη (PC3), ανθρώπινων κυττάρων από καρκίνο του μαστού (MDA-MB-468) και Τ-λεμφοκυττάρων από ασθενείς με λευχαιμία (ΜΤ-4), καθώς και έναντι φυσιολογικών ενδοθηλιακών κυττάρων από φλέβες ανθρώπινου ομφάλιου λώρου (HUVEC). Η τοξικότητα των αρσονολιποσωμάτων υπολογίσθηκε με μετρήσεις της βιωσιμότητας των κυττάρων μετά από αλληλεπίδραση τους με τα λιποσώματα με την μέθοδο MTT. Από τις καμπύλες βιωσιμότητας υπολογίσθηκαν και οι IC50 τιμές, οι συγκεντρώσεις δηλαδή στις οποίες κάθε λιπόσωμα προκαλεί 50% μείωση της κυτταρικής βιωσιμότητας. Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα όλοι οι τύπο αρσονολιποσωμάτων είναι τοξικοί έναντι των καρκινικών κυττάρων (PC3, NB4 και MT-4), με εξαίρεση τα MDA-MB-468 κύτταρα, ενώ αντιθέτως δεν επηρεάζουν την βιωσιμότητα των φυσιολογικών HUVEC κυττάρων. Ωστόσο, για τον ίδιο τύπο κυττάρων, υπάρχουν σημαντικές διαφορές μεταξύ των διαφορετικών τύπων αρσονολιποσωμάτων, οι οποίες δεν είναι ανάλογες με τις διαφορές της σταθερότητας των αρσονολιποσωμάτων, γεγονός που υποδηλώνει ότι η ακεραιότητα της μεμβράνης των αρσονολιποσωμάτων δεν αποτελεί ανασταλτικό παράγοντα για την εμφάνιση τοξικότητας. Είναι φανερό επομένως πως η σύσταση των αρσονολιποσωμάτων πρέπει να προσαρμόζεται κατάλληλα, ανάλογα με την in vivo κινητική τους και την επιθυμητή βιοκατανομή τους. Μελετήθηκε επίσης ο μηχανισμός αλληλεπίδρασης των λιποσωμάτων με NB4 και MDA-MB-468 κύτταρα, καθώς αυτές οι δυο κυτταρικές σειρές ήταν οι σειρές που επέδειξαν την περισσότερη και την λιγότερη ευαισθησία αντίστοιχα έναντι των αρσονολιποσωμάτων στις μελέτες βιωσιμότητας, με χρήση μιας φθορισμομετρικής μεθόδου. Η μέθοδος επιτρέπει την παρακολούθηση της ενδοκυττάρωσης, της δέσμευσης και διαφυγής των λιποσωμάτων από τα κύτταρα. Το HPTS, μια υδατοδιαλυτή, έντονα φθορίζουσα ουσία, της οποίας ο φθορισμός εξαρτάται από το pH, εγκλωβίστηκε στο εσωτερικό των λιποσωμάτων. Η τιμή του φθορισμού του HPTS στα 413 nm εξαρτάται από το pH, ενώ είναι ανεξάρτητη από το pH στα 454 nm, με μήκος κύματος διέγερσης 512 nm. Η ύπαρξη ισοασβεστικού σημείου στα 413 nm επιτρέπει την «μετάφραση» του φθορισμού σε ποσότητα της ουσίας. Τα NB4 και MDA-MB-468 κύτταρα επωάστηκαν με λιποσώματα που είχαν εγκλωβίσει φθορίζουσα στο εσωτερικό τους (HPTS-λιποσώματα) στους 37 oC για διάφορα χρονικά διαστήματα και υπολογίστηκε ο λόγος των τιμών φθορισμού στα 413 nm και τα 454 nm (Ι454/Ι413), που λειτουργεί ως ένδειξη της ενδοκυττάριας εντόπισης των λιποσωμάτων. Με σκοπό να διευκρινιστεί ο εντοπισμός των λιποσωμάτων στα κύτταρα μετά την επώαση τους, τα κύτταρα επωάστηκαν με NH4Cl, που αλκαλοποιεί το όξινο περιβάλλον των υποκυτταρικών διαμερισμάτων, με αποτέλεσμα αύξηση της τιμής φθορισμού στα 454 nm, εφόσον η φθορίζουσα βρίσκεται στα ενδοσώματα (π.χ. λυσοσώματα). Το φαινόμενο αυτό μπορεί να αναστραφεί με απομάκρυνση του NH4Cl. Υπολογίσθηκαν οι λόγοι Ι454/Ι413 πριν και μετά την επώαση τους με NH4Cl, καθώς και μετά από την απομάκρυνση του. Προσδιορίστηκε επίσης το % ποσοστό πρόσληψης αρσονολιποσωμάτων από τα κύτταρα. Η τιμή του φθορισμού στα 413 nm αποτελεί μέτρο της συγκέντρωσης αρσονολιποσωμάτων στα κύτταρα, ανεξάρτητα από το σημείο εντόπισης τους (ανεξάρτητα από το pH). Με σύγκριση των τιμών φθορισμού με πρότυπες καμπύλες αναφοράς προσδιορίστηκε η συγκέντρωση φθορίζουσας σε NB4 και MDA-MB-468 κύτταρα, μετά από επώαση τους με HPTS-λιποσώματα στους 37 oC για διάφορα χρονικά διαστήματα. Οι ίδιες μετρήσεις πραγματοποιήθηκαν και μετά από επώαση NB4 και MDA-MB-468 κυττάρων με τα ίδια HPTS-αρσονολιποσώματα στους 4 oC, με σκοπό να διευκρινιστεί αν ο μηχανισμός αλληλεπίδρασης τους εξαρτάται από την θερμοκρασία, αν είναι δηλαδή ενεργειακά εξαρτώμενη διαδικασία. Για τις μορφολογικές μελέτες που πραγματοποιήθηκαν, προστέθηκε στα λιποσώματα επισημασμένο με φθορίζουσα λιπίδιο στην μεμβράνη τους (ροδαμίνη συζευγμένη με φωσφατιδυλοαιθανολαμίνη, Rho-PE) και η κατανομή των λιποσωμάτων παρατηρήθηκε μικροσκοπικά μετά από επώαση τους στους 37 oC για διάφορα χρονικά διαστήματα με NB4 και MDA-MB-468 κύτταρα. Η επίδραση αναστολέων της ενδοκυττάρωσης μελετήθηκε με επώαση των NB4 και MDA-MB-468 κυττάρων με χλωροπρομαζίνη (CPZ, αναστολέας της ενδοκυττάρωσης μέσω κλαθρίνης) και με μεθυλο-β-κυκλοδεξτρίνη (ΜeβCD, αναστολέας της ενδοκυττάρωσης μέσω caveolae) πριν την επώαση τους με HPTS-λιποσώματα. Προσδιορίστηκαν στην συνέχεια οι λόγοι Ι454/Ι413 και τα % ποσοστά πρόσληψης των αρσονολιποσωμάτων από τα κύτταρα, με σκοπό να διευκρινιστεί ο μηχανισμός της ενδοκυττάρωσης. Όλα τα αρσονολιποσώματα επέδειξαν σχεδόν την ίδια συμπεριφορά σε σχέση με τον τρόπο που αλληλεπιδρούν με τα MDA-MB-468 κύτταρα. Ο κύριος μηχανισμός ενδοκυττάρωσης τους φαίνεται να περιλαμβάνει συμμετοχή υποδοχέων, όπως κλαθρίνη ή/και caveolae. Σε σύγκριση με τα αποτελέσματα των μελετών βιωσιμότητας προκύπτει ότι η έλλειψη τοξικότητας αυτών των αρσονολιποσωμάτων μπορεί να οφείλεται στην αποικοδόμηση τους στο εσωτερικό των λυσοσωμάτων ως φυσικό επακόλουθο της ενδοκυττάρωσης μέσω κλαθρίνης, γεγονός που συμφωνεί και με τον προσδιορισμό αρσενικού που έγινε στα MDA-MB-468 κύτταρα κάτω από τις ίδιες συνθήκες επώασης και ανιχνεύτηκαν ποσοστά αρσενικού μόνο στην περίπτωση των πιο σταθερών DSPC-based λιποσωμάτων (PEGylated και μη). Στην περίπτωση των NB4 κυττάρων, προκύπτει πως η τοξικότητα των αρσονολιποσωμάτων μπορεί να συνδέεται επίσης με το ποσοστό συμμετοχής υποδοχέων, όπως κλαθρίνη ή/και caveolae. Λιποσώματα όπως τα PEGylated PC-based αρσονολιποσώματα (που είναι τα πιο τοξικά), δεν αλληλεπιδρούν καθόλου με τα NB4 κύτταρα μέσω υποδοχέων, ενώ αντίθετα τα PEGylated DSPC-based αρσονολιποσώματα, που αποδείχθηκαν τα λιγότερο τοξικά έναντι των NB4 κυττάρων, φαίνεται να εισέρχονται στα κύτταρα αποκλειστικά μέσω κλαθρίνης ή/και caveolae. Κάτω από τις ίδιες συνθήκες επώασης, δεν ανιχνεύτηκαν παρ’ όλα αυτά ποσοστά αρσενικού στα κύτταρα, γεγονός που θέτει πολλά ερωτηματικά για την ενδοκυττάρια τύχη των αρσονολιποσωμάτων και συγκεκριμένα των αρσονολιπιδίων, δεδομένου ότι γίνεται ενδοκυττάρωση ολόκληρων των λιποσωμάτων αφού «control» (χωρίς αρσενικό) λιποσώματα δεν αποδείχθηκαν τοξικά για τα κύτταρα. Τέλος, με σκοπό να μελετηθεί η βιοκατανομή των αρσονολιποσωμάτων, πραγματοποιήθηκαν in vivo πειράματα. Σε ένα πρώτο σετ πειραμάτων, ενέθηκαν ενδοπεριτοναϊκά (i.p.) DSPC-based και PEGylated DSPC-based αρσονολιποσώματα σε balb-c ποντίκια και η κατανομή του αρσενικού στα διάφορα όργανα 1, 2, 5, 12 και 24 ώρες μετά την χορήγηση μετρήθηκε με Φασματομετρία Ατομικής Απορρόφησης με χρήση φούρνου γραφίτη (GFAAS). Ένα υψηλό ποσοστό της δόσης που χορηγήθηκε αποβλήθηκε ταχέως, καθώς στην πρώτη ώρα μετά την χορήγηση σχεδόν 30-40% της δόσης ανιχνεύθηκε στις ιστούς των ζώων. Από το χρονικό σημείο αυτό και μετά, η απομάκρυνση του αρσενικού ήταν βραδεία με χρόνους ημιζωής 27.6 h για τα PEGylated DSPC-based αρσονολιποσώματα και 83 h για τα DSPC-based. Και για τους δύο τύπους αρσονολιποσωμάτων, η κατανομή αρσενικού ήταν υψηλότερη στα έντερα, μετά στο ήπαρ και μειωνόταν κατά την ακόλουθη σειρά: δέρμα + τρίχωμα, στομάχι, σπλήνα, νεφρά, πνεύμονες και καρδιά. Από τα αποτελέσματα αυτά, αν συγκριθούν με τα αποτελέσματα από παρόμοιες μελέτες που έχουν γίνει με PC-based και PEGylated PC-based αρσονολιποσώματα, φαίνεται πως τα DSPC-based και PEGylated DSPC-based αρσονολιποσώματα χαρακτηρίζονται από καλύτερη βιοδιαθεσιμότητα. Από το γεγονός αυτό γίνεται φανερό πως η λιπιδική σύσταση (και κατ’ επέκταση η σταθερότητα) των λιποσωμάτων επηρεάζει το φαρμακοκινητικό τους προφίλ και συνεπώς, η σωστή επιλογή της λιπιδικής σύστασης των λιποσωμάτων είναι πολύ σημαντική ανάλογα με την εφαρμογή για την οποία προορίζονται τα λιποσώματα. Παρόμοιες in vivo μελέτες πραγματοποιήθηκαν τόσο με DSPC-based και PEGylated DSPC-based, όσο και με PC-based και PEGylated PC-based αρσονολιποσώματα. Τα λιποσώματα χορηγήθηκαν ενδοφλέβια (i.v.) σε balb-c ποντίκια και η κατανομή του αρσενικού στα διάφορα όργανα προσδιορίστηκε με Φασματομετρία Ατομικής Απορρόφησης με χρήση φούρνου γραφίτη (GFAAS) 1, 3 και 24 ώρες μετά την χορήγηση. Στην περίπτωση των DSPC-based, τα επίπεδα αρσενικού στους ιστούς των ζώων ήταν γενικά υψηλότερα συγκριτικά με τα επίπεδα μετά από χορήγηση PC-based αρσονολιποσωμάτων. Η επικάλυψη των λιποσωμάτων με PEG επηρέασε περισσότερο την συμπεριφορά των DSPC-based. Τα PEGylated PC-based αρσονολιποσώματα επέδειξαν παρόμοια συμπεριφορά με τα PEGylated «συμβατικά» (χωρίς αρσενικό) λιποσώματα. Μετά από σύγκριση με τα αποτελέσματα των πειραμάτων με i.p. χορήγηση, προκύπτει πως ο ρόλος της οδού χορήγησης είναι σημαντικός στην κινητική των αρσονολιποσωμάτων, όπως και στην περίπτωση των «συμβατικών» λιποσωμάτων. Ενδιαφέρον παρουσιάζει το γεγονός ότι, μετά από την i.v. χορήγηση, βρέθηκαν ανιχνεύσιμες ποσότητες αρσενικού στον εγκέφαλο, που αποτελεί ένδειξη πως τα αρσονολιποσώματα μπορούν να περάσουν τον αιματεγκεφαλικό φραγμό σε κάποιο ποσοστό, όταν βρίσκονται σε υψηλές συγκεντρώσεις στο αίμα. / In this study we investigated the behavior of arsonolipid containing liposomes, in respect with their lipid composition and its effect on their stability, their interactions with normal and cancer cells and their biodistribution. Sonicated arsonoliposomes were prepared using arsonolipid with palmitic acid acyl chain (Ars), mixed with cholesterol (Chol) and phosphatidylcholine (PC-based arsonoliposomes) or 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC-based arsonoliposomes), with PC/Ars/Chol and DSPC/Ars/Chol 12:8:10 molar ratio. Arsonoliposomes with PC/Ars/Chol and DSPC/Ars/Chol 17:3:10 molar ratio was also studied. PEG2000-lipid (1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine conjugated to polyethylenoglycol 2000) containing vesicles (PEGylated arsonoliposomes, PC-based and DSPC-based) were also prepared. Sonicated liposomes were also prepared using phosphatidylcholine or 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, both mixed with cholesterol, PC/Chol and DSPC/Chol 2:1 molar ratio. The cytotoxicity of these arsonoliposomes towards different cancer cells (human promyelocytic leukemia (NB4), prostatic cancer (PC3), human breast adenocarcinoma (MDA-MB-468), human T-lymphocyte (MT-4) and also towards HUVEC (human umbilical vein endothelial cells) was evaluated by calculating the arsonoliposome-induced growth inhibition of the cells by the MTT assay. IC50 values were interpolated from cell number/arsonolipid concentration curves. The results reveal that all types of arsonoliposomes evaluated significantly inhibit the growth of most of the cancer cells studied (PC3, NB4 and MT-4) with the exception of the MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells, which were minimally affected by arsonoliposomes in some cases even less than HUVEC. Nevertheless, for the same cell type the differences between the different types of arsonoliposomes were significant but never proportional to their stability, indicating that high rigidity of the arsonoliposome membrane is not a problem for their anticancer activity. Thereby it is concluded that arsonoliposome composition should be adjusted accordingly depending on their in vivo kinetics and the desired biodistribution. The interaction of liposomes with NB4 and MDA-MB-468 cells (cells with minimum and maximum viability after interaction with the arsonoliposomes accordingly) was monitored by a fluorescence method, which allows for the simultaneous monitoring of endocytosis, binding and leakage. Pyranine (1-hydroxypyrene-3,6,8-trisulfonic acid, HPTS), a highly fluorescent, water-soluble, pH sensitive dye, was encapsulated at high concentration into the lumen of liposomes. HPTS exhibits two major fluorescence excitation maxima (403 and 450 nm), which have a complementary pH dependence. The intensity of fluorescence of HPTS at 413 nm (the isosbestic point of HPTS) is pH-independent, while the intensity of fluorescence at 454 nm is pH-dependent. NB4 and MDA-MB-468 cells were incubated at 37 oC with HPTS-encapsulating liposomes for different time periods and the intracellular fate of liposomes was monitored by measuring the fluorescence, at excitation wavelengths of 413 nm and 454 nm and an emission wavelength of 512 nm. The ratio of the fluorescence intensities (Ι454/Ι413) was calculated and evaluated, since it serves as an indicator of liposomes intracellular fate. In order to gain quantitative proof concerning the localization of cell-associated liposomal fluorescence in endosomes or lysosomes of NB4 and MDA-MB-468 cells, after incubation with HPTS-encapsulating liposomes, the cells were incubated with NH4Cl. This results in an increase of pH in the acidic cellular compartments, which would induce an increase in HPTS fluorescence at 454 nm, if the dye is localized in cell endosomes (i.e. lysosomes). This effect can be reversed by removal of NH4Cl. The ratio Ι454/Ι413 was calculated, before and after NH4Cl incubation, as well as after its removal. The % uptake of liposomal contents by cells and their subsequent exposure to acidified endosomes or secondary lysosomes was also monitored. The intensity at 413 nm serves as a measure of total number of liposomes associated with cells, regardless of their location along the endocytotic pathway. The concentration of dye associated with cells was determined by measuring fluorescence at 413 nm (pH independent point) and comparing the results to a standard curve, after incubation of NB4 and MDA-MB-468 cells at 37 oC with HPTS-encapsulating liposomes for different time periods. Fluorescence microscopy studies were performed to visualize the uptake of HPTS-encapsulating arsonoliposomes in NB4 and MDA-MB-468 cells. The intra- and extracellular distribution of Rho-PE-arsonoliposomes (arsonoliposomes with 0,2% rhodamine conjugated with phosphatidyl-ethanolamine in their lipid composition), was observed after incubation with cells at 37 oC for different time periods, by fluorescence microscopy, using appropriate excitation and barrier filters. Furthermore, in another set of experiments, pretreatment of cells with endocytosis inhibitors was performed. Chloropromazine (clathrin mediated endocytosis inhibitor, CPZ) and methyl-β-cyclodextrin (caveolae mediated endocytosis inhibitor, ΜeβCD) were preincubated with cells, HPTS- encapsulating liposomes were added and the Ι454/Ι413 ratio and the % uptake of liposomal contents by cells were measured for different time periods., in order to clarify in which cases the endocytosis is clathrin- or caveolae-dependent. The interaction of liposomes with cells was monitored at 4 oC as well, in order to study the time-course of the binding of liposomes to cells and clarify whether the mechanism of the association of liposomes with cells is energy dependent. NB4 and MDA-MB-468 cells were incubated at 4 oC with HPTS-encapsulating liposomes for different time periods in two different concentrations and the estimation of the intracellular fate and amount of bound liposomes on the cells was once again based on of Ι454/Ι413 ratio and uptake measurements. The mechanism of the association of the liposomes seems to be similar for all arsonoliposomes in the case of MDA-MB-468 cells. The results reveal that arsonoliposomes are uptaken by a receptor-mediated mechanism, probably clathrin- or/and caveolae-mediated. In comparison with the results of the viability studies, the fact that arsonoliposome did not induce growth inhibition of the MDA-MB-468 cells may correlate to their lysosomal degradation resulting from the clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Moreover, the fact that no arsenic was detected by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorbance Spectrometry in the cells after incubation under the same conditions, except for the more rigid DSPC arsonoliposomes (PEGylated or not), comes in agreement with this previous hypothesis. In the case of NB4 cells, the mechanism of the association and the extent of receptor-mediated endocytosis role may affect the induced growth inhibition. More cytotoxic PEGylated PC-based arsonoliposomes are not endocytosed through receptors at all, while PEGylated DSPC-based seem to be endocytosed through clathrin- or/and caveolae-mediated mechanism. The fact though that no arsenic was detected, after both cancer cell lines were incubated with all arsonoliposomes studied under identical conditions, needs further investigation, given that whole liposomes internalization is taking place and that control liposomes (with no arsenic in their lipid composition) have been found not to be toxic against cancer cells. In order to study the biodistribution of arsonoliposomes, DSPC-based and PEGylated DSPC-based arsonoliposomes, were administered by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection in balb-c mice and the distribution of arsenic in the organs after 1, 2, 5, 12 and 24h post-injection was measured by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Results demonstrate that a high portion of the dose administered is rapidly excreted, since 1h post-injection only about 30–40% of the dose was detected cumulatively in animal tissues. After this, the whole body elimination of arsenic was a slow process with a half-life of 27.6 h for PEGylated DSPC-based arsonoliposomes, and 83 h for the DSPC-based ones. For both arsonoliposomes, arsenic distribution was greater in intestines, followed by liver, carcass + skin stomach, spleen, kidney, lung and heart. Different arsenic kinetics in blood between the two liposome types was observed. Compared to the results obtained previously with PC-based arsonoliposomes, both the DSPC-based and PEGylated-arsonoliposomes have better bioavailability. This proves that arsonoliposome lipid composition (and consequently their integrity) influences their pharmacokinetic profile. Thus, the proper arsonoliposome composition should be used according to the intended application. The same set of in vivo studies were also performed with DSPC-based and PC-based arsonoliposomes intravenous (i.v.) injection. In all cases PEG-lipid (1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine conjugated to polyethylenoglycol 2000) was also added in the lipid membrane of the arsonoliposomes (PEGylated-arsonoliposomes) at 8 mol %. The liposomes were injected intravenously in balb-c mice. For all arsonoliposome types, the biodistribution of arsenic in mice organs was measured by atomic absorption spectroscopy, at 1, 3 and 24 h post-injection. DSPC-based arsonoliposomes give higher arsenic levels in most tissues (compared to PC-based ones) and are also affected to a higher extent by surface PEGylation. PEGylated DSPC arsonoliposomes behave similarly to PEGylated conventional liposomes that bear anionic charge. By comparison with the previous biodistribution values obtained after intraperitoneal administration of most of the vesicle types studied herein, it is concluded that the administration route has a significant effect on arsonoliposome kinetics, in some ways similar to that observed for conventional liposomes. Interestingly, after i.v. injection of all the arsonoliposome types tested, arsenic was found in detectable amounts in the animal brains, indicating that perhaps arsonoliposomes (intact or not) can pass the brain barrier to a certain extent, when high vesicle concentrations are present in the bloodstream.

Les travaux de thèse présentés dans ce manuscrit portent sur l’étude chimique de plantes du genre Psiadia. Trois axes de recherche ont été menés parallèlement à savoir (1) une étude chimiotaxonomique à partir de 11 espèces du genre Psiadia endémiques de La Réunion, (2) un criblage biologique réalisé sur 16 espèces du genre Psiadia dont 11 endémiques de La Réunion et 5 endémiques de Maurice et (3) une étude phytochimique ciblée sur l’espèce Psiadia arguta endémique de Maurice. Le premier axe comportant l'étude chimiotaxonomique menée par une approche métabolomique avait pour objectif d'identifier des marqueurs chimiotaxonomiques. Cette étude a été effectuée à partir des analyses CG-SM et CG-DIF des composés volatils et des analyses RMN 1H des composés non volatils de 11 espèces endémiques de La Réunion récoltées sur différents lieux géographiques et au cours des saisons estivale et hivernale. Une analyse intra-espèce a permis d'étudier la variabilité saisonnière et/ou géographique de la composition chimique de chaque espèce. Une analyse inter-espèces a conduit à deux classifications différentes des 11 espèces selon leur composition en métabolites volatils et non volatils. Le deuxième axe avait pour objectif d'identifier parmi 11 espèces du genre Psiadia endémiques de La Réunion et 5 espèces endémiques de Maurice, les espèces présentant une ou des activités biologiques prometteuses. Les cibles biologiques choisies ont été le parasite Plasmodium falciparum responsable du paludisme, la lignée cellulaire humaine cancéreuse HeLa responsable du cancer du col de l'utérus et l'enzyme HRP (Horseradish peroxydase) intervenant dans la réponse inflammatoire. À l'issue de ce criblage, 5 espèces se sont révélées prometteuses : les espèces réunionnaises P. amygdalina et P. anchusifolia et les espèces mauriciennes P. arguta et P. lithospermifolia pour l'activité antiplasmodiale, ainsi que l'espèce réunionnaise P. dentata pour les trois activités testées. Le troisième axe consacré à une étude phytochimique de P. arguta réalisée par un fractionnement bioguidé de l'extrait brut a conduit à l'isolement et à l'identification de 16 terpénoïdes : 2 triterpènes et 14 diterpènes de structure labdane dont 4 sont de structure nouvelle. Cinq diterpènes se sont révélés particulièrement actifs contre le parasite P. falciparum : l'acétate de labda-13(E)-en-8α-ol-15-yle, l'acétate de labdan-8α-ol-15-yle, le 13-épi-sclaréol, le labda-13(E)-ène-8α,15-diol et le (8R,13S)-labdane-8,15-diol. Par ailleurs, une étude métabolomique menée par RMN 1H sur des plantules de P. arguta cultivées in vitro et acclimatées a permis l'étude des facteurs influençant la production de ces composés bioactifs. / The present work describes the chemical composition of the plant genus Psiadia and focuses on three research topics: (1) a chemotaxonomic study of 11 species endemic to Reunion island, (2) a biological screening of 16 Psiadia species among which 11 are endemic to Reunion and 5 are endemic to Mauritius and (3) a phytochemical investigation of Psiadia arguta, endemic to Mauritius. The aim of the chemotaxonomic study was to identify chemical markers by a metabolomic approach using GC-MS and GC-FID for volatiles compounds and 1H NMR for non-volatiles compounds. The 11 studied species were harvested in different locations and seasons in order to analyze the seasonal or geographical variability of the chemical profile of each species. This study led to two classifications of the 11 species in terms of the composition of volatiles and non-volatiles compounds. The objective of the second research topic was to identify within 11 species endemic to Reunion island and 5 species endemic to Mauritius, the most active species for the biological activities tested. The targeted activities were antiplasmodial against Plasmodium falciparum, anticancer against the human cancer cell lines HeLa and anti-inflammatory through the inhibition of the enzyme HRP (Horseradish Peroxidase). Four species, P. amygdalina and P. anchusifolia, endemic to Reunion, and P. arguta and P. lithospermifolia, endemic to Mauritius, were particularly active against P. falciparum. Besides, P. dentata (endemic to Reunion) displayed interesting antiplasmodial, anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities. The third research topic was devoted to a phytochemical investigation of P. arguta by a bioguided fractionation and led to purification and identification of 16 terpenoids: 2 triterpenes and 4 diterpenes including 4 new compounds. The evaluation of the antiplasmodial activity of all isolated compounds allowed to highlight activities of five diterpenes: labda-13(E)-en-8α-ol-15-yle acetate, labdan-8α-ol-15-yle acetate, 13-epi-sclareol, labda-13(E)-ene-8α,15-diol and (8R,13S)-labdane-8,15-diol. Furthermore, in order to identify factors influencing the production of bioactive compounds, P. arguta has been multiplicated using in vitro culture techniques and micropropagated plants were acclimatized.

L'extraction par CO2 supercritique démontre les avantages d'un procédé de chimie verte en comparant ce procédé à la méthode d'extraction par solvant organiques et en tenant compte du degré de toxicité et de pollution du solvant. L'extraction par solvants organiques met en évidence l'influence du solvant d'extraction alors que l'extraction par CO2-SC met en évidence l'influence de différents paramètres dont la pression, la température, le temps de contact entre la matrice végétale et le CO2-SC, le diamètre moyen des particules et l'ajout d'un co-solvant. L'analyse chromatographique a permis d'identifier et de quantifier les flavonolignanes (silychristine, silydianine, silybine, taxifoline) dans les extraits de graines obtenus par solvants organiques et par CO2-SC avec co-solvant. A 220 bar, les concentrations en silydianine (38,87 mg/g) et en silybine (45,91mg/g) sont les plus élevés et à 40°C les concentrations en silychristine (31,97mg/g), en silydianine (38,87 mg/g) et en silybine (45,91mg/g) sont les plus importantes. Les extraits huileux obtenus à 220 bar et à 40°C des graines de Silybum marianum sont riches en acides gras : acide linoléique (65,22%), acide oléique (27,01%), acide palmitique (12,12%). L'activité antioxydante a été évaluée par deux tests : test DPPH et test ABTS. Ces deux tests sont complémentaires et ont permis de conclure que l'extrait ayant un effet antioxydant le plus important est l'extrait obtenu par CO2-SC à 220 bar et à 40°C. L'activité biologique de cet extrait est mise en évidence par rapport à une lignée cellulaire cancéreuse du colon Caco-2. La silychristine, la silydianine et la silybine ainsi que l'extrait obtenu par CO2-SC avec co-solvant (éthanol) à 220 bar et à 40°C ont été testés vis à vis de cette lignée cancéreuse. Ces expérimentations in vitro reflètent une activité cytotoxique quantifiable et une mortalité cellulaire des Caco-2 des flavonolignanes allant jusqu'à 71% / The supercritical CO2 extraction demonstrates the benefits of green chemistry process comparing with the method of organic solvents extraction and depending to toxicity and pollution solvent degree. Organic solvents extraction shows the solvent extraction influence, so that the SC-CO2 extraction highlights different parameters including pressure, temperature, contact time between the plant matrix and CO2 SC, the average particle diameter and the addition of a cosolvent. Chromatographic analysis identified and quantified four flavonolignans (silychristin, silydianin, silybin, taxifolin) in seed extracts obtained by organic solvents and SC-CO2 with cosolvent. At 220 bar, silydianin (38.87 mg / g) and silybin (45.91 mg / g) have highest concentrations and at 40°C silychristin (31.97 mg / g), silydianin (38.87 mg / g) and silybin (45.91 mg / g) have the most important concentrations. The oily extracts obtained at 220 bar and 40°C of Silybum marianum seeds are rich in fatty acids: linoleic acid (65.22%), oleic acid (27.01%), palmitic acid (12.12%). The antioxidant activity measured by two tests: DPPH and ABTS test. These two tests are complementary and confirm that the extract with the higher antioxidant effect is the extract obtained by SC-CO2 at 220 bar and 40°C. The biological activity of this extract is demonstrated with respect to a colon cancer cell line Caco-2. Silychristin, silydianin and silybin and the extract obtained by CO2-SC with co-solvent (ethanol) at 220 bar and 40°C were tested with respect to this line cancer. These experiments in vitro cytotoxic activity reflect estimable and cell death of Caco-2 flavonolignans of up to 71%

Notre travail de thèse a été dédié à la synthèse et à la caractérisation bio-physicochimique de complexes osmium nitrosyle, qui pourraient relarguer l’oxyde nitrique (NO) au sein des cellules tumorales pour conjuguer les propriétés anticancéreuses souvent associés aux complexes du groupe du platine avec la toxicité de l’oxyde nitrique. Le premier chapitre de notre mémoire de thèse présente l’état de l’art dans le domaine des composés anticancéreux et le rôle de l’oxyde nitrique dans l’apoptose cellulaire. Le deuxième chapitre concerne la synthèse et la caractérisation de complexes d’azole (C)[Os(NO)Cl4(A)] (C = Bu4N+, Na+, HA+; A = indazole, pyrazole, benzimidazole, imidazole), où le plus cytotoxique est H2ind[cis-Os(NO)Cl4(indazole)]. Le troisième chapitre est consacré à l’étude cinétique et thermodynamique par RMN de l’isomérisation trans ↔ cis du complexe (Bu4N)[Os(NO)Cl4(indazole)] qui met en évidence un processus d’isomérisation de type dissociatif. Le quatrième chapitre concerne la synthèse et la caractérisation de complexes d’aminoacides (Bu4N)[Os(NO)Cl4(L)] (L = gly, picolinate, L-, D-pro) qui ont une très faible activité antiproliférative. Le dernier chapitre est consacré à la synthèse et à la caractérisation de clusters hétérométalliques [{Os(NO)Cl3(Ox)}4Ln] (Ln = Gd, Tb, Dy, Y ; Ox=oxalate) dans lesquels la coordinance 8 ou 9 du lanthanide dépend de son rayon ionique. Le précurseur {Os(NO)Cl3(Ox)} a l’activité antiproliférative la plus élevée de tous les complexes osmium nitrosyle connus / The PhD thesis was dedicated to the synthesis and bio-physic-chemical characterization of osmium nitrosyl complexes which could release nitric oxide (NO) in tumor cells to combine the anticancer properties of the platinum group complexes and the nitric oxide cytotoxicity. The first chapter presents the state of the art in the field of anticancer compounds and the role of nitric oxide in the apoptosis. The second chapter concerns the synthesis and characterization of azole complexes with the general formulae (C)[Os(NO)Cl4(A)] (C = Bu4N+, Na+, HA+; A = indazole, pyrazole, benzimidazole, imidazole), where the most cytotoxic is H2ind[cis-Os(NO)Cl4(indazole)]. The third chapter focuses on the kinetic and thermodynamic study of the trans ↔ cis isomerisation of (Bu4N)[Os(NO)Cl4(indazole)] complex by NMR, which highlights a dissociative isomerisation process. The fourth chapter concerns the synthesis and the characterization of amino acids complexes with the general formulae (Bu4N)[Os(NO)Cl4(L)] (L = gly, picolinate, L-, D-pro) of whose antiproliferative activity is very low. The last chapter is dedicated to the synthesis and characterization of heterometallic clusters with the general formulae [{Os(NO)Cl3(Ox)}4Ln] (Ln = Gd, Tb, Dy, Y ; Ox = oxalate), where the coordination number 8 or 9 depends on its ionic radius. The precursor {Os(NO)Cl3(Ox)} has the highest antiproliferative activity among of all osmium nitrosyl known so far

A atividade de cisteíno proteases (CP) tem sido relacionada a diferentes patologias, como no caso da leishmaniose, doença de Chagas de alguns tipos de câncer. Devido a homologia entre as cisteíno proteases presentes em altos níveis nesses sistemas celulares, foi investigada aqui a importância dessas enzimas para o desenvolvimento e estabelecimento dessas doenças a partir da atividade biológica in vitro de novos inibidores reversíveis de cisteíno proteases. De maneira geral, as substâncias apresentaram relevante atividade inibitória de cisteíno proteases expressas pelos diferentes sistemas celulares, com máximo de inibição de 42% para o Neq0554 em relação à atividade de CP expressas por Leishmania spp. e 76% em relação a atividade de CP expressas por células de câncer de pâncreas. Diferentes níveis de atividade biológica foram observados entre os sistemas celulares, porém todos apresentaram supressão em relação aos parâmetros citostáticos após a inibição da atividade de CP. Quando testados em Leishmania spp. o crescimento celular foi suprimido em pelo menos 67%, com máximo de inibição de 95% para o Neq0551 a 10 μM. Da mesma maneira, em células de câncer de pâncreas, alterações no ciclo celular e supressão dos processos de migração e formação de colônias foram os resultados mais evidentes, comretenção de 50% da capacidade de formação de colônias das células Mia-Paca2 pelo Neq0554 a 10 μM. Já em relação aos protozoários da capa Y de Trypanosoma cruzi os inibidores testados apresentaram interessante seletividade contra os parasitos, em relação à célula hospedeira LLC-MK2, além de promoverem a supressão de cerca de 80% do processo de invasão celular in vitro quando a célula hospedeira foi previamente tratada com 10 μM do inibidor Neq0662 por 2 h antes do processo de infecção. Por fim, a encapsulação do Neq0554 em apoferritina promoveu um incremento na atividade anticancerígena para células de câncer de pâncreas, com IC50 de 79 μM contra > 200 μM em relação às células de fibroblasto, aumentando sua seletividade. De maneira geral, os resultados corroboram a hipótese de a inibição de cisteíno proteases nos sistemas celulares é eficiente para promover efeitos citostáticos, podendo ser utilizada com controle e supressão do desenvolvimento das patologias. Além disso, a atividade de CP nas células de protozoários e câncer de pâncreas apresentou perfil semelhante de ação, no qual inibidores de CP não promoveram a morte em nível significativo das células, mas ressaltaram os efeitos citostáticos em relação ao crescimento celular. / Cysteine proteases (CP) activity has been related to different pathologies, such as leishmaniasis, Chagas disease and some types of cancer. Due to the homology between cysteine proteases expressed by these cellular systems, it was investigated here the importance of these enzymes for the development and establishment of these diseases based on the in vitro biological activity of novel reversible cysteine protease inhibitors. In general, the inhibitor showed a significant inhibitory activity of cysteine proteases expressed by the different cellular systems, with a maximum inhibition of 42% for Neq0554 concerning the CP activity expressed by Leishmania spp. and 76% to CP activity expressed by pancreatic cancer cells. Different profiles of biological activity were observed between the cellular systems, but all substances had significant CP activity suppression, in cytostatic levels after the inhibition of CPA. When the inhibitors were tested against Leishmania spp., the cell growth was suppressed by at least 67%, with maximum inhibition of 95% for Neq0551 at 10 μM. Similarly in pancreatic cancer cells, changes in the cell cycle profile were the most evident results, as well as the suppression of migration and colony formation ability, with 50% retention of the colony development of Mia-Paca2 cells by Neq0554 at 10 μM. In contrast, to protozoa from Trypanosoma cruzi Y strain, the inhibitors tested showed an interesting selectivity against the parasites concerning the host cell LLC-MK2, also promoting the in vitro cell invasion suppression in about 80% when the host cell was pre-treated with Neq0662 10 μM for 2 h. Finally, the encapsulation of Neq0554 promoted an increase in its anticancer activity against pancreatic cancer cells, with IC50 of 79 μM alongside > 200 μM to fibroblast cells, besides increasing its selectivity. In general, the results corroborate the hypothesis that the inhibition of cysteine proteases in the cellular systems is efficient to promote cytostatic effects, being an interesting tool to be used as control and development suppression of some pathologies. Also, CP activity in protozoa cells and pancreatic cancer showed a similar profile of action, in which cysteine protease inhibitors did not promote death at a significant level for the cells, but emphasized cytostatic effects about cell growth.

Cancer is a disease that kills the world and it is estimated that in 2030 the incidence of this disease in the world reach 21.4 million new cases with 13.2 million deaths. Due to the resistance, non-selectivity and high cytotoxicity, many of the current drugs produce side effects such as bone marrow depression, sterility, risk of non-lymphocytic leukemia, among others. Thus it is necessary to the development of new anticancer drugs that have less harmful effects. Thus, six new compounds were synthesized, four acridínicos derivative, a derivative of bis (cloroetila) and palladium (II) complex acridínico, whose acronyms, respectively (Acri)2N, AcriPro, ACDMA, ACBr2MAN, (Most)2N and ACDMAPd. All these compounds derived from Schiff base had satisfactory yields and characterized by NMR techniques (1H, 13C, COSY, J solved) spectroscopy in the infrared, mass spectrometry and elemental analysis. The strains used human tumor cells were HT-29 (human colon cancer), MCF-7 (human breast cancer), Hep-2 (human larynx carcinoma), NCI-H292 (carcinoma human pulmonary mucoepidermoid) and HL -60 (acute promyelocytic leukemia) and derivatives AcriPro, ACDMA, (Most)2N and ACDMAPd showed the best results of IC50 for the HL-60 cells. / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / O câncer é uma das doenças que mais mata no mundo e estima-se que em 2030 a incidência no mundo desta doença alcance 21,4 milhões de novos casos com 13,2 milhões de mortes. Devido à resistência, a não seletividade e a alta citotoxicidade, grande parte dos fármacos atuais produzem efeitos indesejáveis tais como: depressão na medula óssea, esterilidade, risco de leucemia não linfocítica, entre outros. Desta forma faz-se necessário o desenvolvimento de novos fármacos antitumorais que possuam menos efeitos agressivos. Assim, foram sintetizados seis novos compostos, sendo quatro derivados acridínicos, um derivado bis(cloroetila) e um complexo de paládio(II) acridínico, que tem como acrônimos, respectivamente, (Acri)2N, AcriPro, ACDMA, ACBr2MAN, (Most)2N e ACDMAPd. Todos esses compostos derivados de base de Schiff tiveram rendimentos satisfatórios e foram caracterizados pelas técnicas de RMN (1H, 13C, COSY, J resolvido), espectroscopia na região do infravermelho, espectrometria de massas e Análise Elementar. As linhagens de células tumorais humanas utilizadas foram HT-29 (câncer de cólon humano), MCF-7 (câncer de mama humano), HEp-2 (carcinoma de laringe humana), NCI-H292 (carcinoma mucoepidermoide de pulmão humano) e HL-60 (leucemia promielocitica aguda) e os derivados AcriPro, ACDMA, ACDMAPd e (Most)2N apresentaram os melhores resultados de CI50 para a células HL-60.

PhD (Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal Universtiy of Technology / The genus Tulbaghia has been used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments such as fever, earache, tuberculosis and esophageal cancer. However, there is limited scientific evidence to support its use. Therefore the objectives of this study were to perform phytochemical analysis, investigate the antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, immunomodulatory activities and toxicity of crude acetone and water extracts from selected Tulbaghia species. Standard methods were used for preliminary phytochemical analysis. The total phenolic content of the plant extracts was determined using the folin ciocalteu method whereas the total flavonoids were determined by using the aluminium chloride colorimetric method. DPPH and ABTS assays were used to evaluate the antioxidant activity. The antimicrobial activity was assessed by agar well diffusion, microtiter dilution and time kill assays. For anticancer studies, the antiproliferative activity of the extracts was evaluated using the MTT assay on Hkesc-1 and KB cells. Morphological changes of the cancer cells treated with extracts were examined using light microscopy. Induction of apoptosis was assessed using fluorescence microscopy and acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining. Flow cytometry analysis was conducted to examine the multicaspase activity and cell cycle arrest. For immunomodulatory activity, the Greiss reagent and Luminex cytokine assays were used to determine the effect of the extracts on NO production and the concentration of the cytokines in the treated cells, respectively. Toxicity of selected Tulbaghia species was examined by investigating the effect of the extracts on the metabolic activity and cell membrane integrity on the treated RAW264.7 cells using the MTT and LDH assays, respectively. The zebrafish assay was used to evaluate the embryotoxicity and teratogenic effects of crude acetone and water extracts of T. violacea at 24 h intervals for 96 h post fertilisation (hpf). The percentage mortality, hatchability and heart rate were examined. Phytochemical screening of eight Tulbaghia species demonstrated the presence of flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, terpenoids, saponins and steroids. The amount of total phenol and flavonoid content varied in different plant extracts ranging from 4.50 to 11.10 milligrams gallic acid equivalent per gram (mg GAE/g) of fresh material and 3.04 to 9.65 milligrams quercetin equivalent per gram (mg QE/g) of fresh material respectively. The IC50 values based on DPPH and ABTS for T. alliacea (0.06 and 0.06 mg/mL) and T. violacea (0.08 and 0.03 mg/mL) were generally lower showing potential antioxidant activities. For antimicrobial activity, the acetone extracts of T. acutiloba, T. alliacea, T. leucantha, T. ludwigiana, T. natalensis and T. simmleri showed moderate antimicrobial activity against all test organisms while the water extracts showed moderate to no activity. One species, T. cernua, showed poor activity against all the tested microbes. The acetone and water extracts of T. violacea showed the greatest antibacterial and antifungal activity against all the tested microorganisms with minimum inhibitory concentration ranging from 0.1 mg/mL to 3.13 mg/mL. The acetone extracts of T. violacea also exhibited both bacteriostatic/fungistatic and bactericidal/fungicidal activity depending on the incubation time and concentration of the extract. The bactericidal/fungicidal activity was observed at x2 MIC. The results for anticancer activity showed that treatment of Hkesc-1 cells with acetone and water crude extracts had anti-proliferative activity with IC50 values of 0.4 mg/mL and 1.625 mg/mL, respectively while KB had 0.2 mg/mL and 1 mg/mL, respectively. Morphological changes such as blebbing, cell shrinkage and rounding were observed in the treated cells suggesting that apoptosis was taking place. AOEB staining showed that the level of apoptosis was dependent on the concentration of the extracts. The activation of multicaspase activity in both Hkesc-1 and KB treated cells was also concentration dependent leading to cell death by apoptosis and the induction of cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase. Immunomodulatory activity results indicated that cell viability was above 80% when concentrations of 50 µg/mL or less of both acetone and water crude was used. Treatment with the acetone extract had no significant effect (p>0.05) on the LPS induced NO production in RAW264.7 cells except at 50 µg/mL where significant inhibition was observed. The water extract had no significant effect (p>0.05) on NO production at all the concentrations. Treatment of LPS–induced RAW264.7 cells with acetone extract stimulated the production of IL-1α, IL-6 and TNF-α, but had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on IL-1β. On the other hand, treatment with the water extracts stimulated the production of IL-1α, IL-6 but had no significant effect (p>0.05) on TNF-α and IL-1β. Treatment of LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells with the acetone extract had very little stimulatory effect on IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 and no significant effect on IL-10 whereas for the water extract a significant stimulatory effect was only observed for IL-4 after 48 h of treatment. High concentrations (>10000 pg/mL) of MCP-1, MIP1-α, MIP1-β, MIP-2, GCSF, GM-CSF, RANTES and IP-10 were also observed in acetone and water extract treated RAW264.7 cells. For toxicity studies, acetone and aqueous crude leaf extracts from T. alliacea, T. simmleri, and T. violacea had a significant inhibitory (p<0.05) effect on the RAW264.7 cells after 48h treatment. Acetone extracts from T. alliacea, T. simmleri and T. violacea resulted in IC50 values of 0.48 mg/mL, 0.72 mg/mL and 0.1 mg/mL, respectively. Treatment with water extracts showed minimal toxic effect indicated by higher IC50 values of 0.95 mg/mL, 2.49 mg/mL and 0.3 mg/mL for T. alliacea, T. simmleri and T. violacea, respectively. The LDH release by macrophages after 24 h treatment with acetone extracts was observed to be concentration dependent while treatment with water extracts did not induce LDH release. The zebra fish assay showed a lethal dose (LD50) for the T. violacea acetone crude extract of 20 μg/mL whereas that for water extract was 85 μg/mL. The observed teratogenic effects included scoliosis, edema of the pericardial cavity, retarded yolk resorption, hook-like/bent tail and shorter body length. In conclusion, the results from this study indicate that the extracts from the eight Tulbaghia species examined contain phytochemicals that may have the antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer and immunomodulatory properties. Extracts from T. violacea were observed to be the most potent. This study thus supports the use of T. violacea in treating bacterial and fungal infections in traditional medicine. The results of this study also confirm the anticancer potential of T. violacea. The immunomodulatory activity of the acetone and water extracts from T. violacea indicated a dominantly pro-inflammatory activity. Traditional medicine prepared form T. violacea may be of benefit to individuals with weak immune systems. The toxicity of selected Tulbaghia species was observed to be concentration, extract and time dependent. Therefore, traditional medicine prepared from Tulbaghia extracts should be taken with caution preferably in small doses over a short period of time. Future studies will focus on the identification of the bioactive compound(s) responsible for the antimicrobial, anticancer and immunomodulatory activities.

<p>Steroidna jedinjenja spadaju u grupu supstanci sa &scaron;irokim spektrom biolo&scaron;kog delovanja i predstavljaju dobru polaznu osnovu za sintezu mnogih derivata sa željenim biolo&scaron;kim potencijalom. Organskim sintezama se do&scaron;lo do velikog broja steroidnih derivata, od kojih su neki pokazali značajnu biolo&scaron;ku aktivnost, kao &scaron;to je citotoksičnost prema različitim ćelijskim linijama kancera. Karakterizacija novosintetisanih jedinjenja može se izvesti eksperimentalnim i računarskim (in silico) metodama. U ovoj doktorskoj disertaciji predstavljeno je eksperimentalno određivanje lipofilnosti 17&alpha;-pikolil i 17(E)-pikoliniliden androstanskih derivata primenom visokopritisne tečne hromatografije na obrnutim fazama, a potom hemometrijska analiza hromatografskog pona&scaron;anja (hromatografske lipofilnosti) QSRR pristupom. Hemijska struktura analiziranih derivata opisana je numerički, pomoću izračunatih molekulskih deskriptora. U drugom delu doktorske disertacija predstavljena je QSAR analiza citotoksične aktivnosti 17&alpha;-pikolil i 17(E)-pikoliniliden androstanskih derivata prema ćelijama androgen-receptor negativnog kancera prostate (AR-neg. PC-3). Odabir najkvalitetnijih QSRR i QSAR modela obavljen je na osnovu izračunatih statističkih parametara, a njihovo rangiranje izvedeno je primenom metode sume razlika rangova (SRD). Pored regresionih QSRR i QSAR hemometrijskih metoda, primenjene su i klaster analiza i analiza glavnih komponenata sa ciljem utvrđivanja sličnosti ili razlika između analiziranih derivata na<br />osnovu izračunatih molekulskih deskriptora.</p> / <p>Steroidal compounds belong to the group of substances with wide spectrum of biological activity and represent the basic material for synthesis of many derivatives<br />with preferred biological potential. A grate number of steroidal derivatives have been<br />obtained through organic syntheses, many of which have demonstrated significant<br />biological activity, such as cytotoxicity toward various cancer cell lines. Characterization of newly synthesized compounds can be achieved experimentally<br />and by computational approach (in silico). This doctoral dissertation describes<br />experimental determination of lipophilicity of 17&alpha;-picolyl and 17(E)-picolinylidene<br />androstane derivatives applying reversed-phase high pressure liquid chromatography followed by quantitative structure-retention relationship (QSRR)<br />chemometric analysis of chromatographic behaviour (chromatographic lipophilicity).<br />Chemical structure of the analyzed derivatives was described numerically by in silico<br />molecular descriptors. The second part of this dissertation describes quantitative<br />structure-activity relationship (QSAR) analysis of cytotoxic activity of 17&alpha;-picolyl and<br />17(E)-picolinylidene androstane derivatives toward androgen-receptor negative<br />prostate cancer cell line (AR-neg. PC-3). Selection of the best QSRR and QSAR<br />models was carried out based on their statistical parameters, and their ranking was<br />done by sum of ranking differences (SRD) method. Besides the regression QSRR and QSAR chemometric methods, cluster analysis and principal components analysis were conducted in order to reveal possible similarities and dissimilarities among the studied derivatives on the basis of calculated molecular descriptors.</p>