Les Escherichia coli pathogènes de la volaille (APEC) font partie des E. coli extra-intestinaux pathogènes (ExPEC) et seraient un réservoir possible de gènes de virulence et de résistance aux antimicrobiens (RAM) des ExPEC chez l’humain. L’objectif de cette étude était d’évaluer l’effet d’un prébiotique et d’un mélange d’acide organique et d’huiles essentielles encapsulés sur la prévalence des gènes de virulence des ExPEC et de RAM, ainsi que les associations entre ces gènes chez E. coli de l’intestin du poulet sain. Des échantillons de contenus caecaux de poulets de 29 jours d’âge ayant reçu un de ces ingrédients alimentaires comparativement à des témoins ont été analysés pour la présence des gènes de virulence iucD, tsh, papC et des gènes de RAM blaTEM, blaSHV, tetA, tetC, blaCMY-2, aadA1, aac3 par PCR. La prévalence d’iucD était supérieure dans le groupe témoin comparativement aux groupes «prébiotique» et «acide organique» et la prévalence de papC était affectée dans le groupe «acide organique». La prévalence d’isolats d’E.coli positifs pour blaCMY-2 était supérieure dans le groupe témoin comparée aux groupes «prébiotique» et «acide organique», tel que démontré par la technique d’hybridation de l’ADN sur HGMF (Hydrophobic Grid Membrane Filter). De plus, la prévalence des isolats d’E. coli positifs pour tetA, blaTEM, aadA1 ou tsh était affectée par les ingrédients alimentaires. Dans l’ensemble, des associations entre la présence de tsh et iucD, blaTEM et aadA1, et iucD et blaCMY-2 ont été observées. .Cette étude démontre l’utilité de certains ingrédients alimentaires pour dimunier le risque d’exposition en santé publique. / Avian Pathogenic E. coli (APEC) belong to the extra-intestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) pathotype, and may be a virulence and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) gene reservoir for ExPEC in humans. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of addition to the feed of a prebiotic or an organic acid on the prevalence of ExPEC-associated virulence genes and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes and the association between these genes in E. coli of the intestinal microflora of healthy chickens. Caecal contents from 29-day-old chickens having received one of these feed ingredients in comparison to a control group were examined for the presence of virulence genes iucD, tsh, and papC and AMR genes blaTEM, blaSHV, tetA, tetC, blaCMY-2, aadA1, and aac3 by PCR. The prevalence of iucD was significantly higher in the control group than in the prebiotic and organic acid groups and prevalence of papC was affected by the use of the organic acid. The prevalence of blaCMY-2-positive E. coli isolates was higher in the control group than the prebiotic or organic acid groups, as demonstrated by Hydrophobic–grid membrane filter (HGMF) DNA probe colony hybridization. In addition, the prevalence of E. coli isolates positive for tetA, blaTEM, aadA1 or tsh was affected by the use of these feed ingredients. Overall, associations between the presence of iucD and tsh, blaTEM and aadA1, and iucD and blaCMY-2 were observed. This study demonstrates that the use of certain feed ingredients could reduce the risk of exposure in a public health perspective.

Submitted by DANIEL MARTINS SILVA null (daniel_m105@hotmail.com) on 2016-06-13T12:09:12Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação-Final-2016.pdf: 1232731 bytes, checksum: a3b1a459a153bdc0df5be33dcfc2b83a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Juliano Benedito Ferreira (julianoferreira@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-06-15T19:30:27Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_dm_me_mar.pdf: 1232731 bytes, checksum: a3b1a459a153bdc0df5be33dcfc2b83a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-15T19:30:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_dm_me_mar.pdf: 1232731 bytes, checksum: a3b1a459a153bdc0df5be33dcfc2b83a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-05-17 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Entre o fim do governo George W. Bush e o primeiro mandato do governo Barack Obama os Estados Unidos iniciou sua participação na Parceria Transpacífica (PTP). A fim de entender as motivações norte-americanas para este acordo regional de comércio, a dissertação trabalhou com a hipótese de que a evolução do novo regionalismo asiático, a partir dos anos 2000, teve um peso significativo na estratégia estadunidense de comércio. Destacam-se a ASEAN+3 e a ASEAN+6, grupos liderados pelo Japão e China para incrementar a integração econômica do Leste Asiático. Diante da emergência desta configuração, os Estados Unidos estiveram excluídos do processo. Para averiguar esta afirmação utilizamos a plataforma Inside Trade, entrevistas e notícias de jornais relevantes; arquivos da Casa Branca (relatórios dos principais órgãos decisórios e discursos); relatórios anuais e outros documentos do USTR; além de arquivos do Departamento de Estado (em especial do Escritório de Assuntos do Leste Asiático e Pacífico). A análise do material empírico revelou que o receio de exclusão dos Estados Unidos e da predominância da China como ator político no comércio intra-asiático foram questões frequentemente levantadas pelo empresariado e policy-makers da política comercial norte-americana. Além de circunstâncias regionais, o envolvimento dos Estados Unidos no acordo se explica pelo seu interesse em moldar as regras que conformam o regime global de comércio. Demonstramos que expandir a presença política do país na Ásia-Pacífico e constranger a emergência chinesa eram tarefas fundamentais para alcançar este objetivo. / Between the end of George W. Bush’s government and Barack Obama’s first term, the United States began its participation in Transpacific Partnership (TPP). In order to understand american motivation for this regional trade agreement, our hypothesis supported that new asian regionalism dynamics had a weight in US trade policy strategy. We highlitgh ASEAN+3 and ASEAN+6, groups leading for Japan and China to increase economic integration of East Asia. In this configuration, the United States had been excluded. Aiming to check this, we use the “Inside Trade” platform, interviews and news of important newspapers; the White House archives (reports of the main agencies and discourses); annual reports and other documents from USTR; also US Department of State’s archives (especially the Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs). The empirical analysis reveal that fear of United States’ exclusion and the China’s predominance as political actor in intra-asian trade were often raised by business and policy makers of US trade policy. Beyond regional reasons, US envolvement is explained by its interest to shape the rules conforming global trade regime. We demonstrate that raising US political presence and constraining chinese emergence were fundamental tasks to achieve this goal.

近年來，大陸已經從一個強調經濟發展的國家蛻變為一個注重經濟發展但是也關注永續發展的國家。大陸從只願付出共同但有區別責任到積極做出空氣污染管制的大國，是否可以藉由不同於以往的模型來解釋？本論文主要運用路徑分析法的概念來闡述北京的空氣污染治理政策演進，藉由設定奧運和APEC北京為治理的「關鍵節點」，進一步闡述國家與地方環境政策的變化與演進。而中國政策決策制度的演進也是影響環境政策的輔助因素，因此第四章也特別說明中國大陸制定決策的模式演變。希望藉由不同的理論來解釋當前北京乃至中國的環境治理，並檢視當前環境治理的不足及說明未來可能的發展方向。 / In the past decade, countries and organizations around the globe have devoted themselves to brought out the important message of sustainable development. Climate change and environmental protection have been two of the core issues to be considered into state’s foreign policy. China has been facing the environmental issues in recent years. In this thesis, it argues that China’s awareness of sustainable development and environmental protection, especially on air pollution problem in Beijing, was gradually flourished as time went by. From ignoring environmental problem and devoting effort on one-sided economic development to positively face and try to solve the air pollution problem, China has gone through its decision-making and mindsets reform. Furthermore, this thesis suggests that the progress of it corresponds with a certainly path. Hence, path dependent analysis would be applied to test whether this kind of path fits air pollution control methods in China and possibly foresee the environmental future of Beijing to be a cleaner and healthier city.

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隨著資訊技術之快速發展及受到金融交易全球化之影響，在營運模式及法令遵循之需求下，使得銀行業將客戶個人資料跨境傳輸至其他國家之公務或非公務機關所產生之資料保護或對資訊隱私權衝擊等議題漸增。為調和不同國家間對於個人資料保護文化及規範程度之差異，各國及各國際組織間均致力於如何在不影響商業交易需要、個人資料隱私安全及資訊自由流通之前提下，經由適當法律規範對於資料管理者國際傳輸個人資料之行為，予以適當控管。 隱私權之概念雖起源於美國，惟現行各國對於個人資料國際傳輸保護規範仍以歐盟委員會於1995年發布之個人資料隱私保護指令（Directive 95/46/EC）最為重要且影響層面較大。在歐盟指令仍須各會員國將其轉化為國內法，始得有效執行之前提下，本研究以金融服務產業發展較為領先之國家—英國，以英國銀行業適用之個人資料國際傳輸保護規範為研究主題，所涉法規包括：歐盟指令、英國1998年資料保護法（Data Protection Act, DPA）及英國金融服務業適用之相關規範等。 研究結果發現，英國1998年資料保護法在參照歐盟指令之相關規範下，對於資料管理者將個人資料國際傳輸已訂有相關限制規定及如何符合相關豁免規定之作業流程及評估程序，英國專責資料保護之監理機關（資訊自由及保護委員會），並已依據歐盟指令，發布規定授權英國企業得採用標準契約範本及經其個案核准採用共同約束條款，顯示英國對於國際傳輸之個人資料已有一定程度之保障。惟如同歐盟委員會之研究報告所述，英國相對於歐盟其他會員國，並未將國際傳輸規範明訂於資料保護法之本文，對於當事人資訊隱私權保護之法律位階，仍有待加強。 不同於我國係於銀行法明定銀行對客戶資料之保密義務，英國法院認為銀行對於客戶資料之保密責任，原始存在於銀行與客戶間之契約。惟英國與我國相同於金融相關法令中僅針對銀行境外委外所涉之國際傳輸訂有相關監理規範（包括境外委外事先申請核准、申請程序及應檢附之文件），以透過銀行與委外服務供應商之委外契約，確保金融監理機關能跨國有效行使其監理權限，保護當事人之權益，至於銀行因非委外事項，將客戶資料跨境傳輸至其他國家時，仍應回歸適用資料保護法有關國際傳輸之相關規定。 本研究最後就我國與英國對於個人資料國際傳輸相關保護規範之比較結果發現，我國個人資料保護法雖已於99年修正發布（新個資法），但對於國際傳輸之限制規定，修法後雖已明定國際傳輸之定義及加重非公務機關違反國際傳輸規定之罰則，惟未修正其實質規範內容，仍僅授權中央目的事業主管機關於非公務機關有第21條所列四項情形之一時，得限制其進行國際傳輸。在新個資法下，非公務機關對於個人資料之國際傳輸，已無須取得目的事業主管機關登記，並取得執照，雖有利於資料之國際流通，惟為保護當事人個人資料於傳輸後之安全，我國是否尚須其他配套措施，以落實個人資料於國際傳輸層面之保障，值得深思。 本研究對於我國銀行業國際傳輸個人資料保護規範之主要建議，包括（1）宜透過各中央目的事業主管機關對被監理機構之監理及其與相關公益團體間之合作，以強化各界對於個人資料保護之重視，（2）國際傳輸之限制規定應予細緻化，並透過產業自治逐步達成個人資料保護之目的，（3）金融監理機關宜配合個人資料保護法之修正，訂定銀行業國際傳輸之作業規範，（4）宜透過租稅合作協定，在不違反我國個人資料保護法及銀行法之原則下，協助我國金融機構解決美國「外國帳戶稅收遵從法」之實施，衍生對於個人財務資訊隱私權及跨境傳輸個人資料保護之問題。

不論是反全球化或是支持全球化，我們都無法否認，全球化已經是一個現在進行式。另外一個與全球化一樣逐步成長的乃是市場經濟體制，市場經濟體制植基於開放競爭有助於資源合理分配的觀念，而全球化則擴大了資源分配的範圍。然而，全球化和市場經濟體制的發達，貿易壁壘的消除，也帶動跨國界限制競爭活動的發展，反托拉斯不再是單純的國內問題，而是國際問題。 國際反托拉斯所帶來的問題大致可分為下述兩種，一是阻礙國際貿易的發展，二是因為各國不同的反托拉斯標準造成國際緊張以及企業成本。第一類問題可以細分為下述幾種情況：1. 國際卡特爾破壞市場競爭機制以及消費者福祉； 2. 跨國公司在全球濫用獨占力，影響國際競爭秩序和消費者福祉；3. 競爭法的缺乏以及競爭法的不力執行構成市場進入障礙。第二類問題亦可以細分為下屬幾種情況：1. 國際合併的多國標準造成企業的額外成本，不利國際合併之進行，並造成國際緊張；2. 國與國間產業政策以及競爭政策的衝突。 面對上述這些跨國性的反托拉斯問題，各界紛紛提出競爭法調和的呼籲，此議題近來在各國際組織也漸獲重視。事實上為了處理國外限制競爭行為對國內所產生的影響，以保護本國利益，國內法方面已有所謂的「域外適用（extraterritorial application）」對策產生。但是競爭法的域外適用並無法全然解決現時國際限制競爭行為所帶來的問題，反而還帶來了新的問題，並造成國際緊張。為了在國際案件有效執行反托拉斯法，不論是在卡特爾案件或是獨占力濫用案件，各國競爭法主管機關互相合作與協調都是不可或缺的。至於將競爭法提升至國際法層次，避免國家以非關稅措施破壞自由貿易制度，似乎也有需要。 本文目的在於藉著對競爭法調和現況的瞭解和其成就之分析來尋求目前全球化時代，貿易自由化時代下跨國限制競爭問題的解決之道。 全文一共分為六章，第一章為緒論，為本論文做出開端，闡明全球化時代國際競爭秩序的問題，並提出研究範圍與目的。 第二章研究關於國際競爭秩序的雙邊條約，著眼於美國和歐盟，澳洲和紐西蘭，以及我國和世界各國所訂立的條約。討論範圍為該些雙邊關係所建立之合作內容，其具體成效，成功失敗之因素，以及可供世界各國借鏡之處。台灣部分則著眼於我國目前現狀之檢討，和未來走向之研究。 第三章為從事競爭法調和的區域性國際組織，研究範圍包括歐盟、APEC以及NAFTA。其中APEC所從事的活動較近於政策性的調和，屬於競爭政策的宣導；NAFTA則進一步具有競爭法的實體規範；歐盟不但具有實體規範，並具有一套全球獨步的競爭法執行架構。 第四章為國際組織，將討論UN, WTO和OECD在國際競爭法的發展。UN基本上雖為政治組織，但是對於競爭議題也相當重視；WTO部分則將討論目前競爭議題在WTO體系的進展，並進一步討論WTO進行國際競爭法調和工作的可行性和不可行性；OECD對於競爭議題也一直相當重視，本文將探討OECD在競爭議題方面的研究成果。 第五章為全球性的競爭法規範，討論的範圍有UNCTAD所提出的「管制限制性商業行為的一套多邊協議的公平原則和規則（Set of Multilaterally Agreed Equitable Principles and Rules for the Control of Restrictive Business Practices）」以及DIAC。這兩套全球性的競爭法不但都具有實體規範也都提出一套制度性規範，雖然兩者都未能成為具有拘束力的國際競爭法，但是其所提出的實體規範內容和架構設計仍值得我們做進一步的研究。「管制限制性商業行為的一套多邊協議的公平原則和規則」本身是以聯大決議的形式呈現，因此在某一角度而言，「管制限制性商業行為的一套多邊協議的公平原則和規則」並未失敗，然而DIAC原本乃是預定成為WTO的附件之一，唯最後這樣的理想並未實現，因此我們有必要去問，DIAC的失敗因素為何？是基於其實體內容的設計問題，或是制度面的設計問題？或者是因為其他的外在因素？ 最後，在第六章的結論，本文將試圖分析各種競爭法調和方式的利弊得失，並且提出建議。 / Some people oppose globalization, while others support globalization. However, it is undeniable that globalization is an on-going trend. Another on-going trend is market-oriented economy structure. The structure of market-oriented economy bases on the theory that competition contributes to reasonable allocation of resource. On the other hand, globalization expands the scope of the allocation of resources. However, the proliferation of globalization and the structure of market-oriented economy and the elimination of trade barriers also promote the development of transnational anticompetitive activities. Antitrust is no more a pure domestic issue, it is also an international issue nowadays. International antitrust problems could be divided into two parts. First, the international antitrust activities hinder the development of international trade. Second, different antitrust standards of each country cause international tense situation and increase enterprises’ cost. First situation contains following aspects: 1. International cartels ruin market competition system and welfare of consumers. 2. Transnational companies abuse their dominant power all globally and affect international competition order and consumers’ welfare. 3. Absence of competition law and unenforcement of it constitute market entrance obstacles. Second situation also contains following aspects: 1.Different standards of international mergers bring many results, such as increasing enterprises’ extra cost, hindering the proceedings of international mergers, and causing international tensions. 2. The conflict between industry policy and competition policy of countries. Facing those transnational antitrust problems, the issue of the harmonization of competition law has been raised. This issue is drawing more and more attention in several international organizations day by day. In fact, to deal with the domestic effect of abroad anticompetitive activities to protect national interest, the theory “extraterritorial application” of domestic law has been raised. However, the extraterritorial application of domestic law is unable to solve all the problems that the international anticompetitive activities have brought. Furthermore, it has also made new problems and caused international tensions. To enforce antitrust law effectively in international cases, cooperation and coordination between national competition agencies are unavoidable. In addition, bringing antitrust law up to international law level and avoiding nations ruin free trade system by non-tariff strategy seem also be needed. The main purpose of this essay is to understand and analysis the current situation of the harmonization of competition law and to find out the solution of transnational competition problems in the era of globalization and the era of free-trade. This essay has been divided into 6 chapters. The first chapter is the introduction, which illustrates the international competition problems in the era of globalization and brings out the studying scope and purpose of this essay. The second chapter talks about international competition bilateral treaties between U.S. and E.U., Australia and New Zealand, Taiwan and other countries. The discussing scope contains the cooperation content which was set up by the bilateral treaty, its concrete result, and the reasons of its failure or success. As for Taiwan, this essay focuses on the review of its current situation and where its future is. The third chapter talks about regional international organizations which involve in the harmonization of competition law, such as E.U., APEC and NAFTA. APEC’s activities are more closer to the harmonization of policies, which promote competition activities. NAFTA has substantial competition regulations. E.U. not only has substantial regulations but also has the first set of enforcement system of international competition law in the world. The forth chapter is international organization, which talks about the development of international competition law in U.N., WTO and OECD. Although basically U.N. is a political organization, it also highly emphasizes competition issues. In addition, this chapter talks about the development of competition issues in the WTO system and the possibilities of promoting the harmonization of international competition law in WTO. Additionally, OECD also emphasizes competition issues very much. This chapter also talks about the study result of OECD in the competition issues. The fifth chapter is the global competition regulations, which contains “Set of Multilaterally Agreed Equitable Principles and Rules for the Control of Restrictive Business Practices” of UNCTAD and “ Draft International Antitrust Code”. Both of the global competition laws contain substantial regulations and the design of enforcement systems. Although both of them ended up in unrestrictive regulations, they also deserve further research. “Set of Multilaterally Agreed Equitable Principles and Rules for the Control of Restrictive Business Practices” was brought out with the form of UN General Assembly Resolution, but it is successful in some aspect. DIAC was meant to be an Annex of WTO originally. However this idea was not realized at the end. Why DIAC failed? Was it because of the design of its substantial content or the design of the enforcement structure or other outside factors? At last, this essay will analysis the shortages and advantages of all kinds of the harmonization of competition law and bring out recommendations in the conclusion of chapter 6.