Cette thèse vise à développer un capteur d’ions cuivre dans des échantillons humains tels que le plasma ou les urines où l’accumulation des ions induit la maladie de Wilson. Le manque d’outil de diagnostic efficace et non invasif rend cette maladie traitable, potentiellement fatale. Notre capteur, basé sur la technologie des transistors à effet de champ de type metal-oxide-semiconducteur, a l’originalité d’utiliser une monocouche de lipide de type DC8,9PC de 2.4 nm d’épaisseur comme diélectrique de grille. Nous démontrons dans cette thèse que ces lipides peuvent être chimiquement modifiés en de monocouches, à stabilité mécanique et électrique élevée, transformées en sondes spécifiques par greffage sur le groupement de tête des lipides d’une fonction chélatante spécifique aux ions cuivre. La monocouche lipidique est formée à la surface du canal semiconducteur du transistor par fusion vésiculaire et est stabilisée par réticulation des lipides suivant un protocole que nous avons développé. Dans une première partie, nous décrivons la fabrication du transistor ainsi que l’ingénierie chimique des lipides avec le chélateur. Des mesures, en solutions aqueuses contenant des ions cuivre et d’autres ions potentiellement compétiteurs, ont validé la sensibilité et la spécificité du capteur. La deuxième partie est dédiée à l’optimisation des monocouches en tant qu’isolants électriques stables. Nous introduisons dans cette thèse la notion de double polymérisation des lipides dans la monocouche avec réticulation des chaînes aliphatiques et des groupements de tête. Nous démontrons que celle-ci conduit à l’amélioration drastique des propriétés mécaniques et électriques des monocouches. / This thesis aims at developing a sensor for the detection of Cu2+ in human samples such as urine. Copper is an ion of pathological interest in the body and its accumulation in tissues is responsible for the Wilson disease. While the disease can be effectively treated, the lack of efficient and non-invasive diagnosis techniques makes it potentially deadly. Our project aims for developing an efficient, sensitive, specific, and low cost sensor device based on metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor technology and has the originality of using a 2.4 nm thick monolayer of DC8,9PC lipids as gate dielectric. We demonstrate that such lipids can be chemically engineered to allow the fabrication of monolayers with high mechanical and electrical stability and to confer them specific probe function. Specificity of the sensor is given by the grafting of a copper specific chelator to the lipids head-groups. The lipid monolayer is formed on the transistor semiconducting channel by the vesicle fusion. In the first part of the thesis, we describe the fabrication of the transistor including the chemical engineering of the lipids with the chelator. Sensitivity and specificity measurements were realized in aqueous solutions containing copper ions and potentially competitive ions. The second part is dedicated to improving the performances of the lipid monolayer as a stable insulator. We introduce in this thesis the concept of double polymerization of the lipids in the monolayer with a reticulation at both the levels of their aliphatic chains and their head-groups. We demonstrate that that leads to drastic improvements of both the mechanical and electrical properties of the monolayer.

La mécanique cellulaire a gagné un intérêt croissant en raison de son implication fondamentale dans des nombreux processus cellulaires, notamment la migration, la division, la différentiation et l’apoptose. Entre autres techniques, la microscopie à force atomique (AFM) s’est avérée particulièrement utile pour la caractérisation mécanique des cellules vivantes. Dans cette thèse, deux aspects différents ont été étudiés par AFM. Dans un premier temps, l’élasticité des cellules épithéliales étalées sur des micropatterns adhésifs a été cartographiée. Cette étude montre que l’élasticité d’une cellule varie en fonction de sa géométrie d’adhésion à la fois au niveau global et subcellulaire. La deuxième partie de cette thèse est dédiée à la caractérisation de la réponse viscoélastique d’une cellule à un stimulus mécanique oscillatoire à haute fréquence. Des études précédentes montrent que la réponse des cellules est dominée par un stress élastique et suive une loi de puissance faible à basse fréquence. Une réponse cellulaire essentiellement visqueuse est attendue à haute fréquence, mais jusqu’à présent les limitations techniques ont empêché l’évaluation de cette propriété. Dans ma thèse, ces limitations ont été dépassées grâce à la modification d’un AFM à grande vitesse (HS-AFM). Des mesures de rhéologie active sur fibroblastes ont été réalisées entre 1Hz et 120 kHz, permettant d’étendre de deux ordres de grandeur l’échelle de fréquences explorée. Ce travail montre une réponse cellulaire aux stimulations à haute fréquence plus visqueuse qu’à basse fréquence, mais suggèrent aussi une réponse bien plus complexe qu’attendue. / The field of cell mechanics gained a growing interest because of its fundamental implication in several cellular processes, such as migration, division, differentiation and apoptosis. Among other techniques, atomic force microscopy (AFM) demonstrated particularly useful for the mechanical characterization of living cells. In this thesis, two different aspects were investigated by AFM. In the first part, the elastic properties of epithelial cells grown on adhesive micropatterns were mapped. This study shows that the elasticity of a cell varies as a function of the geometry of its adhesive environment on both global and subcellular scales. The second part of this thesis focuses on the characterization of the viscoelastic response of a cell subjected to an oscillatory mechanical stimulus at high frequency. Previous studies show that the response of cells to such stimuli is mainly dominated by elastic stress and follows a weak power law at low frequency. Instead, a predominantly viscous behavior is expected at high frequency. Up to now, technical limitations prevented the experimental validation of this property. In this thesis, these limitations were overcome thanks to the modification of a high-speed AFM (HS-AFM). With this setup, active rheological measurements of living fibroblasts could be performed from 1 Hz to 120 kHz, extending of two orders of magnitude the frequency scale explored until now. This work highlights a response of cells to high-frequency stimuli which is more viscous than at low frequency, but also suggests a more complex response than expected.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / In the current study, we give a report when oxalic acid was used as an electrolyte to synthesize an AAO template with hexagonal pore array. Optimum parameters were observed as 0.4 M of oxalic acid, anodizing voltage of 45 V, temperature of approximately 8 °C and the period of 120 minutes. Atomic force microscope (AFM) and High resolution scanning electron microscope (HRSEM) showed that template has an average pore diameter of 103 nm. Co and MnOx (x = 1,2) nanostructures were selectively deposited in the pores of the template using a novel atomic layer deposition (ALD) technique. The diameter sizes and the array of the nanostructures and the template were corresponding. Energy dispersive xrays (EDX) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed the presence of Co and MnOx (x =1,2) on the samples while x-ray diffraction (XRD) provided an indication of their orientations. Magnetic force microscopy as main characterization tool showed the existence of multi-domains on both Co and MnOx (x =1,2) nanostructures. / South Africa

The work of this thesis comprises extensive Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy (NC-AFM) characterization of clean metal-oxide (YSZ(100)/(111) and MgO(100)) and graphitic (HOPG) supports as templates for the novel, photochemically induced nucleation of cobalt oxide nanostructures, particularly Cobalt (III) Oxide. The nanostructure-support surfaces were also studied by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) to verify the nature of the supported cobalt oxide and to corroborate the surface topographic and phase NC-AFM data. Heteroepitaxial growth of Co2O3 nanostructures proves to exhibit a variety of different growth modes based on the structure of the support surface. On this basis, single-crystal support surfaces ranging from nonpolar to polar and atomically flat to highly defective and reactive were chosen, again, yielding numerous substrate-nanostructure interactions that could be probed by high-performance surface science techniques.

Because cells are machines, their structure determines their function (health). But their structure also determines cells’ mechanical properties. So if we can understand how cells’ mechanical properties are influenced by specific structures, then we can observe what’s happening inside of cells via mechanical measurements. The Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) has become a standard tool for investigating the mechanical properties of cells. In many experiments, an AFM is used to ‘poke’ adherent cells with nanonewton forces, and the resulting deformation observed via, e.g. Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy. Results of such experiments are often interpreted in terms of continuum mechanical models which characterize the cell as a linear viscoelastic solid. This “top-down” approach of poking an intact cell —complete with cytoskeleton, organelles etc.— can be problematic when trying to measure the mechanical properties and response of a single cell component. Moreover, how are we to know the sensitivity of the cell’s mechanical properties to partial modification of a single component (e.g. reducing the degree of cross- linking in the actin cortex)? In contrast, the approach taken here —studying the deformation and relaxation of lipid bilayer vesicles— might be called a “bottom-up” approach to cell mechanics. Using Coarse- Grained Molecular Dynamics simulations, we study the deformation and relaxation of bilayer vesicles, when poked with constant force. The relaxation time, equilibrium area expansion, and surface tension of the vesicle membrane are studied over a range of applied forces. Interestingly, the relaxation time exhibits a strong force-dependence. Force-compression curves for our simulated vesicle show a strong similarity to recent experiments where giant unilamellar vesicles were compressed in a manner nearly identical to that of our simulations.

L’intérêt pour la paroi de la levure s’est accru récemment par l’explosion des activités de bioraffineries augmentant la production de biomasse, et par le besoin de valoriser cette biomasse dans d’autres débouchés comme en nutrition animale et en œnologie pour leurs propriétés probiotiques et de sorption. Le but de cette thèse était de combiner des approches biochimiques, biophysiques et les puces à ADN afin d'étudier les relations entre ces paramètres ainsi que de mettre en évidence l'impact des souches, des conditions de croissance et des procédés sur la composition et les propriétés biophysiques de la paroi cellulaire. Une méthode acido-enzymatique a été développée pour quantifier spécifiquement chacun des quatre composants de la paroi cellulaire de la levure, à savoir les mannanes, la chitine, les β-1,3-glucanes et les β-1,6-glucanes. Cette méthode a été validée sur des souches mutantes et a permis d’évaluer les effets de divers stress. Ultérieurement, l'utilisation de la microscopie à force atomique (AFM) a permis l'étude des mêmes souches et de quatre souches utilisées dans la fermentation industrielle. Ils ont démontré des propriétés nanomécaniques et adhésives distinctes, en raison de différences dans la composition et la structure de la paroi cellulaire. Dans la dernière partie, les effets du procédé d’autolyse et du séchage à lit fluidisé sont présentés. Ce procédé industriel ne modifie pas la composition de la paroi cellulaire, mais induit une modification de la topographie et des propriétés de surface de la cellule. En outre, en utilisant l'AFM nous avons imagés sur S. cerevisiae des patchs hautement adhésifs formant des nanodomaines à la surface de la cellule. / Due to increasing yeast biomass production resulting from the expansion of the Biorefinery as an alternative to petrol-based energy, the yeast cell wall is receiving an increasing interest as an added value product targeting agro-nutrition markets, such as in animal nutrition and in wine for its probiotic and sorption properties. The purpose of this thesis was therefore to combine DNA microarrays, biochemical and biophysical approaches in order to investigate the relationships between these parameters as well as to highlight the impact of strains, growth conditions and processes on the cell wall composition and biophysical properties. To achieve this objective, an acido-enzymatic method was developed to specifically quantify each of the four components of the yeast cell wall, namely mannan, chitin, β-1,3-glucan and β-1,6-glucan. This method was validated on mutant strains and allowed highlighten various stresses effects. Then, the use of atomic force microscopy (AFM) has allowed investigating the same strains and four strains used in industrial fermentation. They demonstrated distinct nanomechanical and adhesive properties, due to differences in their cell wall structure and composition. In the last part, the effects of the autolysis and fluid-bed drying processes are presented. This industrial process does not change the composition of the cell wall but induces a modification in topography and surface properties of the cell. Moreover, using AFM we imaged on S. cerevisiae cell surface highly adhesive patches forming nanodomains.

Cette thèse est centrée sur les cristaux liquides et l' ordre orientationnel qui découle de ces matériaux anisotropes. Des motifs chiraux quasi-bidimensionnels ont été formés par microscopie à force atomique (AFM) sur substrat de polyimide. Dans le cas de matériaux non chiraux, une chiralité 3D a été localisée à quelques nanomètres de la surface. La chiralité a été quantifiée par l'effet électroclinique de surface. De plus, un échantillon avec un axe facile et bien contrôlé a été fabriqué et une méthode pour mesurer l'orientation du directeur local avec une résolution de 100 nm en utilisant la microscopie optique en champ proche a donné la vraie fonction de répartition angulaire de l'ordre local avec une grande précision. Enfin, un auto-assemblage de nanoparticules d'or a été étudié dans un film de cristal liquide cholestérique (CLC), en cellule ouverte, a vec une texture cholestérique orientée et des nanoparticules d'or enrobées de molécules de thiol. Les mesures de la Résonance Plasmon de Surface Polarisée Localisée (LSPR) montrent une anisotropie de la réponse optique dans ces système hybrides que nous avons liées à la présence d'agrégats en forme d'aiguilles. Les calculs de la théorie de Mie généralisée, en interprétant les mesures de LSPR, ont mis en évidence une distance entre nanoparticules plus petite dans le CLC par rapport à des nanoparticules sans CLC. L' espacement plus rapproché suggère la présence de sites de piégeage dans le CLC ainsi que la présence d'une coquille isotrope autour les nanoparticules. / This dissertation focuses on liquid crystals and the inherent orientational order that arises from these anisotropic materials. Quasi two-dimensional chiral patterns were scribed via Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) with robust control onto polyimide substrate, composed of achiral materials, yielding 3D chirality that was localized to within a few nanometers of the surface. The chirality was quantified through the surface electroclinic effect. In addition, a sample with a well-controlled easy axis was fabricated and a method to measure the local director orientation with 100 nm resolution using Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy yielded the true angular distribution function of the local order with high precision. Finally, gold nanoparticle self-assembly was studied within a cholesteric liquid crystal (CLC) film. The open sample creates a striped texture and gold nanoparticles coated with thiol are deposited within the liquid crystal matrix. Polarized Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) measurements show an anisotropy between light polarized with respect to the stripe orientation. Evaporating the liquid crystal revealed disordered anisometric needle-like aggregates through AFM. Generalized Mie theory calculations, in conjunction with LSPR, found a smaller nanoparticle spacing in the CLC compared to a 2D monolayer of the same nanoparticles on a rubbed substrate or 1D chains in smectic A dislocations. The closer spacing suggests trapping sites within the CLC, where nanoparticles are first localized and then aggregate under van der Waals attraction aided and enhanced by the CLC and mediated by steric forces.

Dans ce travail, la nanoindentation et la Microscopie à Force Atomique ont été utilisées pour déterminer les caractéristiques mécaniques et morphologiques de l'os cortical aux échelles micro et nanoscopique. Les propriétés mécaniques qui dépendent du temps, élastique et plastique ont été quantifiées par nanoindentation en utilisant une méthode spécifique. Les essais ont été réalisés sur trois différentes espèces d'os cortical. Dans un premier temps, l'os du rat fut utilisé pour quantifier l"évolution des propriétés mécaniques de la croissance à la sénescence. La variation des propriétés mécaniques avec l'âge fut démontrée et sa corrélation avec les propriétés physico-chimiques établie. Les équations de prédiction ont été proposées afin de décrire le comportement mécanique puis pour quantifier un âge de maturation apparent pour chaque propriété. Dans un deuxième temps, le comportement mécanique qui dépend du temps a été examiné sur l'os humain. Les systèmes Haversiens avec différents contenus du minéral furent identifiés à partir d'images ESEM. Les résultats démontrent l'hétérogénéité mécanique des systèmes Haversiens et l'influence des propriétés mécaniques qui dépendent du temps sur l'anisotropie de l'os. Enfin, l'os bovin fut utilisé pour quantifier les effets mécaniques et morphologiques du processus de déminéralisation. Le résidu organique de l'os déminéralisé présente un comportement mécanique quasi-isotrope. Les images AFM montrent que les fibres de collagène sont orientées dans une direction privilégiée. Les données obtenues pourront servir à développer des matériaux biomimétiques et à établir des lois de comportement multi-échelles de l'os cortical. / Bone is a dynamical, anisotropic, hierarchical, inhomogeneous and time-dependent biological material. At the micro and nano scales, their mechanical and structural characterizations are still being a challenging topic. Nanoindentation and Atomic Force Microscopy are used to assess the mechanical and morphological characteristics of cortical bones. Time-dependent, elastic and plastic mechanical properties were computed using the nanoindentation method proposed by (Mazeran et al., 2012). Experiments were performed on different species of bones for different conditions. Wistar rat femoral cortical bone was used to assess the evolution of the mechanical properties in a life span model (from growth to senescence). The variation of the mechanical properties with age was evidenced and their correlation with physico-chemical properties was established. Then, prediction equations were proposed to describe these behaviours. From these equations, it is possible to estimate an apparent maturation age for each mechanical property. Our findings suggest maturation age is earlier and growth rate are higher for elastic properties than for time-dependent mechanical properties. Time-dependent mechanical behaviour of Human femoral cortical bones were assessed considering its heterogeneity. Haversian systems with different apparent mineral content were identified by means of their apparent grey levels obtained from ESEM images. Results prove the mechanical heterogeneity of the Haversian systems and highlight the influence of the time-dependent mechanical properties in the anisotropic behaviour of bone. Bovine femoral cortical bone was used to quantify the mechanical and morphological effects of the demineralization process. Bone seems to have a quasi-isotropic mechanical behaviour after mineral loss. AFM images of the remaining organic components show that collagen fibrils are oriented in a possible privileged direction. According to our knowledge, few investigations have been performed simultaneously on mechanical, morphological and physico-chemical properties of bone. All these results provide a better understanding of the interactions of the collagen-mineral matrix, bone remodelling and their influence especially in the time-dependent mechanical response. Data reported in this work could be useful to develop and to improve multi-scale bone models and multi-scale constitutive laws for cortical bone.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a technique that is part of a series of scanning probe microscopies (SPM). It is a powerful tool due to its potential use in conducting, semiconducting and biological materials without the need of pretreatment of the samples, being applied in areas such as Chemistry and Healthy Science. The use of AFM technique is growing exponentially in the last years and can be evidenced by the large number of articles published in the literature, c.a. 58.000 (until September, 2009). AFM resolution level reaches the nanometric scale with an increase of 109 times. The image acquired is built through of a software supplied by the equipment and converge exactly to the real image. During the execution of this work, we used AFM to characterize tiophene and pyrrole derivatives deposited on the electrode surface of indium tin oxide (ITO) using different experimental conditions and deposition charges. We also verified the morphological aspects of the deposition of dansyl film by chemical and electrochemical methods. The use of AFM in dental acts allowed to define the best method of inserting dental material into cavity of dental tissue damage – single or incremental increase followed the use of such lights – halogena or LED – to the polymerization process. The analysis of the enamel surface of the tooth was also researched to verify the effect of toothbrushes using dentrify or not. We used commercial toothbrushes and experimental dentrify with RDA 60 provided by Colgate-Palmolive Co. AFM appeared to be a useful tool to obtain images and statistic parameters to conducting polymers, to the systems between enamel and resin and to the enamel submit to action of toothbrushes bristles with and without an experimental toothpastes. The main parameters obtained were analysis of the surface of several materials and acquisition roughness, Ra, Rms and relative surface area. In all the experiments, the AFM was a technically viable, efficient, economically advantageous technique and without the necessity of special sample treatment. / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A microscopia de força atômica (AFM) é uma das técnicas que faz parte da grande família de microscópios de sonda de varredura mecânica (SPM). É uma ferramenta poderosa por sua possibilidade de uso em materiais condutores, semicondutores e até materiais biológicos sem a necessidade de pré-tratamento das amostras, encontrando aplicação em várias áreas do conhecimento, inclusive na Química e nas Ciências de Saúde. O uso da técnica de AFM nos últimos anos vem aumentando exponencialmente, sendo constatado pelo grande número de artigos publicados, cerca de 58.000 (até setembro, 2009). Seu nível de resolução alcança a escala nanométrica com aumento da ordem de 109 vezes. A imagem fornecida é formada através da interação entre uma sonda e a superfície da amostra por meio de programa do próprio equipamento e converge exatamente para a imagem real. No presente trabalho, utilizamos o AFM para caracterizar polímeros condutores derivados de tiofeno e pirrol depositados sobre a superfície de eletrodo de óxido de índio dopado com estanho (ITO) utilizando condições experimentais diferentes. Ainda, verificamos os aspectos morfológicos da deposição de filmes de dansila por métodos químicos e eletroquímicos. A AFM foi utilizada para verificar o efeito das cerdas das escovas dentárias na superfície do esmalte do dente na presença ou não de dentrifício. Foram utilizadas escovas comerciais e dentrifícios experimentais com uma abrasividade relativa da dentina de 60 cedidos pela Colgate-Palmolive Co. A utilização da AFM nos procedimentos dentários permitiu definir qual o melhor método de inserção de revestimento na cavidade de tecidos dentários danificados – incremento único ou incremental seguido da utilização de luzes do tipo – halógena ou luz emitida por diodo - para o processo de polimerização. A AFM mostrou ser uma ferramenta útil na obtenção de imagens e parâmetros estatísticos para os filmes poliméricos, para os sistemas entre esmalte dental e resinas poliméricas e para os esmaltes dentários submetidos a ação das cerdas das escovas com e sem dentrifício. Em todos os experimentos propostos a AFM se mostrou tecnicamente viável, eficiente, economicamente vantajosa e sem necessidade de tratamento especial das amostras.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Several polishing protocols have been assessed for their effect on the surface roughness of restorative materials. However, the effect of polishing systems on surface roughness depend on the composite used. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of two different polishing systems (Diamond Pro, FGM - DP; Jiffy® Polishers, Ultradent Products - JP) combined to three composites: nanoparticle (Filtek ™ Z350 XT, 3M / ESPE), nanohybrid (IPS Empress Direct, Ivoclar Vivadent Ltd.) and microhybrid (Vit-l-escence®, Ultradent Products). Fifty-four pecimenss were prepared in a metallic matrix (10 mm x 2 mm) and polymerized under a polyester strip. The specimens were identified and randomly distributed into six groups (n = 9) in accordance to the polishing system. Surface roughness was measured at baseline E0 (polyester strip), E1 (diamond burs), E2D (Diamond Pro) and E2J (Jiffy® polishers) by a profilometer. Data were collected and analyzed. To qualitatively analyze the surface, one specimen from each group was analyzed by atomic force microscopy (AFM). According to the Paired t-test (p <0.05), there was no significant difference between the roughness values obtained in E0 and E2D for nanoparticle composites (p = 0.463) and nanohybrid (p = 0.423). However, for microhybrid composite, using both polishing systems led to significantly rougher surfaces than E0. The AFM showed that surface roughness is related to particle morphology. It was concluded that the surface roughness is dependent on composite and polishing system. / Diversos protocolos de polimento têm sido avaliados quanto ao seu efeito sobre a rugosidade superficial de materiais restauradores. No entanto, o efeito dos sistemas de polimento pode variar a rugosidade superficial de acordo com o compósito utilizado. Desta forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a influência de dois diferentes sistemas de polimento (Diamond Pro, FGM; Jiffy® Polishers, Ultradent Products) na rugosidade superficial de três resinas compostas: nanoparticulada (Filtek™ Z350 XT, 3M/ESPE), nanohíbrida (IPS Empress Direct, Ivoclar Vivadent Ltda) e microhíbrida (Vit-l-escence®, Ultradent Products). Cinquenta e quatro amostras foram confeccionadas em uma matriz metálica (10 mm x 2 mm) e polimerizadas contra uma tira de poliéster. Em seguida, as amostras foram identificadas e distribuídas aleatoriamente em seis grupos (n=9) de acordo com a resina composta e o sistema de polimento a ser utilizado. Para cada amostra, a rugosidade superficial foi mensurada em E0 (baseline - tira de poliéster), E1 (pontas diamantadas), E2DP (Diamond Pro) ou E2JP (Jiffy® Polishers) por meio de um rugosímetro Mitutoyo SJ-410. Os dados encontrados foram coletados e analisados em software IBM SPSS Statistics, versão 21. Para caracterização da superfície, uma amostra de cada grupo foi analisada em microscópio de força atômica (MFA), modelo Agilent 5500. Segundo o teste T Pareado (p<0,05), não houve diferença significativa entre os valores de rugosidade obtidos em E0 e E2DP para as resinas compostas nanoparticulada (p=0,463) e nanohíbrida (p=0,423). Contudo, para a resina composta microhíbrida, a utilização de ambos os sistemas de polimento provocaram superfícies significativamente mais rugosas do que em E0. As observações de MFA confirmaram que a rugosidade da superfície está relacionada com a morfologia da partícula. Concluiu-se que a rugosidade da superfície foi afetada pelo tipo de compósito e sistema de polimento.