O diabete melito é um grupo de doenças metabólicas caracterizadas por hiperglicemia, resultado de deficiências na secreção de insulina, em sua acção ou ambos. A pioglitazona é um hipoglicemiante oral, da classe da tiazolidinedionas, que atuam pela ligação aos receptores nucleares PPARY melhorando o estado de resistência a insulina. Acredita-se que a pioglitazona também restauram a capacidade da célula beta pancreática de secretar insulina, cuja atividade é regulada pelos canais de potássio dependente de ATP (KATP) e suas subunidades SUR1 e KIR6.2. Este estudo teve como objetivo iniciar um estudo farmacogenômico da pioglitazona em indivíduos diabéticos tipo 2 e na expressão dos genes PPARY PPARY2, SUR1 e KIR6.2 no sangue periférico e no tecido adiposo e associá-los com os polimorfismo Pro12Ala e C161T do gene PPARY. Foram selecionados 36 pacientes diabéticos do tipo 2 e 16 pacientes normoglicêmicos, no Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia. Os indivíduos diabéticos foram tratados com pioglitazona (15, 30 e 45 mg/ dia/ via oral) por 16 semanas. Foram colhidas amostras de tecido adiposo por biopsia e de sangue, antes e após o tratamento para determinação de exames laboratoriais, extração de DNA genômico e de RNA total. Os polimorfismos foram detectados pela técnica de PCR-RFLP e a expressão de mRNA foi quantificada e avaliada por RT-PCR em tempo real. Após tratamento com pioglitazona, observou-se no sangue periférico aumento de expressão de mRNA do PPARY, PPARY2 e KIR6.2, e diminuição da expressão de SUR1. Dados de analises no sangue periférico, demostraram que variação da expressão de mRNA do PPARY foi inversamente correlacionada com as variações de insulina, Homa-IR, Homa-Beta e positivamente com Colesterol Total. Em relação ao gene PPARY2, foi inversamente correlacionada com colesterol total. Variação da expressão de SUR1 foi inversamente correlacionada com Hb1Ac, Homa-IR, Homa-Beta e positivamente com insulina. Não foram detectadas diferenças entre a expressão de mRNA de KIR6.2 e parâmetros bioquímicos em resposta às variações pioglItazona. Não houve diferença da resposta terapêutica e presença dos polimorfismos Pro12Ala e C161T. Após o tratamento, no tecido adiposo, a expressão de mRNA de PPARY aumentou. Não foram observadas diferenças na expressão dos genes PPARY2, SUR1 e KIR6.2. Em leucócitos totais de sangue periférico, pioglitazona demonstrou regular a expressão dos genes PPARY e PPARY2, e também atuando sobre as subunidades SUR1 e KIR6.2, possivelmente restaurando a função secretora das células beta. No tecido adiposo, o tratamento confirma a atuação da pioglitazona sobre PPARY, melhorando o estado de resistência a insulina. / The diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia, the result from insulin secretion or action deficiency, or both. Pioglitazone is an oral hypoglycemic drug, included in the class of thiazolidinediones, which work by binding to nuclear receptors PPARY nuclear what improve the state of resistance to insulin. Pioglitazone may also restore the ability of the pancreatic beta cell to secrete insulin, process which is regulated thought ATP dependent potassium channels (KATP) and its subunits SUR1 and KIR6.2. The aim of our study was to begin a pharmacogenomic study of pioglitazone in type 2 diabetes patients by the expression of PPARY, PPARY2, SUR1 and KIR6.2 genes in peripheral blood leukocytes and fatty tissue and its association with the PPARY Pro12Ala and C161T polimorphisms. 36 type 2 diabetes and 16 normoglycemic patients were selected at the Dante Pazzanese Institute of Cardiology. The diabetic ones were treated with pioglitazone (15, 30 and 45 mg/ daily /orally) for 16 weeks. Samples of adipose - obtained through biopsy - and blood were collected before and after treatment to aim to laboratory experiments, DNA extraction and total RNA extraction. The polymorphisms were detected by the PCR-RFLP technique while the mRNA expression was quantified and evaluated by Real Time RT-PCR. After pioglitazone treatment, the expression of the PPARY, PPARY2 and KIR6.2 genes increased, while SUR1 decreased, all of them quantified in peripheral blood. Peripheral blood data has demonstrated that the variation of expression of PPARYmRNA is inversely correlated with insulin concentrations, Homa-IR, Homa-Beta and positively correlated with total cholesterol concentrations. Differently, PPARY2 gene expression was inversely correlated with total cholesterol blood concentrations. Variations in SUR1 mRNA expression were inversely correlated with Hb1Ac, Homa-IR, Homa-Beta and positively correlated with insulin. No differences were found between the KIR6.2 expression and biochemical parameters due to pioglItazone treatment. There was no difference in response to the treatment response and no Pro12Ala and C161T polymorphisms were noticed. After the treatment, the expression of PPARY gene increased in fatty tissue. No data showed differences in the expression of genes PPARY2, SUR1 and KIR6.2. Pioglitazone regulates the expression of genes PPARY and PPARY2, and also acts on the SUR1 and KIR6.2 subunits in total peripheral blood leukocyte likely restoring the function of secreting beta pancreatic cells. In adipose, the treatment reassures the functions of pioglitazone on PPARY, improving the state of insulin resistance.

N,N,N\',N \'-tetrametil-p-fenilenodiamina (TMPD) catalisa a autoxidação de coenzimas piridínicos (NADH, NADPH) e modelos (ClBCH ,ClPCH ) ao cátion piridínico com rendimentos de 80-100%. A velocidade destas reações mostrou dependência de primeira ordem com respeito à concentração da 1,4-dihidronicotinamida e de meia ordem em relação às concentrações de O2 e TMPD. Estes dados cinéticos e testes com captadores de ion superóxido e superóxido dismutase indicam que os radicais HO•2 oriundos da autoxidação lenta do TMPD promovem a oxidação da dihidronicotinamida numa reação em cadeia; no término os radicais HO•2 se aniquilam por dismutação. O mecanismo proposto também é confirmado (1º) pela razão kC-H/kC-D=2,3 quando se substitui um dos hidrogênios do C4 de ClBCH por deutério, (2º) pelas idênticas velocidades iniciais em H2O e D2O, (3º) pelo valor da Ea = 10 kcal/mol na autoxidação do NADH e (4º) pelo aumento da velocidade de pH = 7,8 a pH 6,5. TMPD também promove a autoxidação do derivado 5, 6-hidratado (PHTN) da dihidronicotinamida ao cátion piridínico (ClPC+) apenas de fosfato ou arsenato estão presentes. O ClPC+ nã o se forma a partir do ClPCH em equilíbrio com o PHTN. Muito provavelmente se forma a partir do intermediário fosforilado no C6 por oxidação no C4 seguida de eliminação de fosfato. Quando PHTN e ClPCH foram oxidados pelo sistema O2/TMPD na presença de fosfato de piridínio ou de tetra-n-butilamônio em meio piridínico houve formação de pirofosfato, isolado por cromatografia de papel e por resina de troca aniônica. Adicionando-se ADP de tetra-n-butilamôneo ao sistema, constatou-se a formação de pirofosfato e de ATP com rendimentos mínimos de 5% e 3% , respectivamente. Por outro lado se a mistura de reação contém AMP de tetra-n-butilamôneo pôde-se verificar a formação de pirofosfato, ADP e ATP com rendimento total de 28% de \"ligações ricas\". A reação estudada foi proposta como modelo para síntese de ATP no sítio I da cadeia respiratória. / N,N,N\',N\'-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine (TMPD) catalyses the autoxidation of the pyridine coenzymes and of their models to the pyridinium form (80-100% yields). The first arder dependence of the rate upon the dihidronicotinamide concentration and half order upon both the O2 and TMPD concentrations, indicates that the relatively slow autoxidation of TMPD is the source of free radicals: dihydronicotinamide autoxidizes by the HO•2 chain mechanism and in the termination step the HO•2 radicals decay by dismutation. Such a mechanis is also supported by the inhibitory effects of cathecol, a scavenger of the HO•2 radical, and of superoxide dismutase, an enzyme which accelerates the dismutation of the O-2/ HO•2 species. The mecanism is further supported by (1) kC-H/kC-D=2,3 for substitution in 1-benzyl-1,4-dihydronicotinamide (ClBCH), (2) identical rates in H2O and D2O buffers, (3) Ea = 10 kcal/mole in the autoxidation of NADH and (4) the increase in rate from pH 7,8 to 6,5. TMPD promotes also the autoxidation of 1-n-propyl-6-hydroxy-1,4,5,6 - tetrahydronicotinamide (PHTN) to the 1-propyl-3-carboxamidopyridinium cation (ClPC+) provided phosphate ar arsenate are present. ClPC+ originates not from 1-n-propyl-1,4-dihydronicotinamide (ClPCH) in equilibrium with PHTN but most certainly from a C6 phosphorylated intermediate by oxidation at C4 and loss of phosphate. When PHTN an ClPCH were oxidated by the system O2/TMPD in the presence of pyridinium phosphate or tetra-n-butylammonium phosphate in pyridineas solvent, formation of pyrophosphate occurred. Pyrophosphate was isolated and identified by paper and ionic exchange resin chromatography. If tetra-n-butylammonium ADP is also present in the system, one can observe the formation of both pyrophosphate and ATP (5% and 3% minimum yields, respectively). In the presence of tetra-n-butylammonium AMP there, formation of pyrofosphate, ADP and ATP occurs. The total yield of energy rich bond is 28%. We suggest that the reaction is a model for the generation of the first ATP in the respiratory chain.

A tuberculose (TB) é uma doença infecciosa causada por bactérias do gênero Mycobacterium que acomete principalmente o sistema respiratório. A cepa Beijing 1471 (M. tuberculosis) induz uma resposta altamente pró-inflamatória, enquanto que a cepa MP287/03 (M. bovis) induz uma fraca resposta inflamatória. O receptor P2X7 (P2X7R) é um sensor de ATP extracelular, uma molécula associada ao dano que é liberada a partir de células necróticas. A TB induzida por ambas as cepas hipervirulentas Beijing 1471 e MP287/03 é atenuada em camundongos deficientes do P2X7R. Portanto o objetivo do nosso trabalho foi avaliar o papel do P2X7R na resposta imune da TB induzida por essas cepas hipervirulentas. Nós percebemos que apesar das diferenças na capacidade imunomodulatória induzida pelas cepas Beijing 1471 e MP287/03, o P2X7R exerce um papel importante na severidade da doença induzida por ambas as cepas, e que a ausência desse receptor foi capaz de restabelecer a resposta imune pulmonar a perfis semelhantes ao induzido pela cepa de menor virulência H37Rv de M. tuberculosis. / Tuberculosis (TB) is infectious diseases caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) that mainly affect the respiratory system. Beijing 1471 strain (Mtb) induce a strong pro-inflammatory response, while MP287/03 strain (M. bovis) induce a weak pro-inflammatory response. The P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) is a sensor of extracellular ATP, a damage-associated molecule that is released from necrotic cells and that induces pro-inflammatory cytokine. TB caused by both hypervirulent strains Beijing 1471 and MP287/03 is attenuated in P2X7R deficient mice (P2X7RKO). Therefore, our aim was to investigate the role of P2X7R in imune response of TB induced by MP287/03 and Beijing 1471 strains. We has note that despite Beijing 1471 and MP287/03 strains have opposite immunomodulatory properties, the P2X7R have an important role in modulating the immune response induced by both strains. Thus, the lung immune responses induced by both hypervirulent infections in the absence of this receptor were similar to that induced by less virulent H37Rv Mtb mycobacteria.

L’ATP synthase ou ATPase de type F, ancrée aux membranes internes des mitochondries, est un complexe macromoléculaire qui utilise le gradient électrochimique généré par l’oxydation de petites molécules (NADH2, FADH2) dans les différents complexes de la chaîne respiratoire pour former l’ATP, vecteur énergétique universel. Le gradient électrochimique ou pm f est transformé en une énergie mécanique qui se traduit par le mouvement du rotor de l’ATP synthase dans un sens horaire vu depuis la membrane. La rotation de la sous-unité γ déforme successivement les trois sites catalytiques et permet ainsi la synthèse d’ATP. Dans certains cas, comme ceux de l’anoxie ou de l’hypoxie, le gradient électrochimique peut s’effondrer et l’ATP synthase hydrolyse alors l’ATP. Pour éviter cette hydrolyse futile, un petit peptide nommé IF1, régulateur spécifique des ATP synthases mitochondriales, vient s’insérer entre les sous-unités d’une interface catalytique et bloque instantanément le fonctionnement de l’ATPase. Cette inhibition est réversible puisque le peptide se décroche lorsque la membrane interne mitochondriale se réenergise.Dans ce travail de thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés à caractériser le mécanisme d’inhibition de l’ATPase de S.cerevisiae par son peptide endogène IF1 en s’appuyant essentiellement sur les quelques données structurales qui ont été publiées sur le peptide et sur le complexe inhibé IF1-F1ATPase de B.taurus.Constitué de 63 acides aminés chez S.cerevisiae et 84 acides aminés chez B.taurus, IF1 est majoritairement structuré en hélice α . Les études menées par Elena Cabezón ont montré qu’IF1 possédait différentes formes dont la prédominance et l’activité dépendait essentiellement du pH. Chez B.tauru , il existe une forme inhibitrice dimérique prédominante à pH inférieurs à 6,5 et une forme tétramérique dont nous connaissons la structure 3D qui est non inhibitrice et prépondérante à pH supérieurs à 6,5. Chez S.cerevisiae, il existe une forme monomérique inhibitrice prépondérante à pH supérieur à 6,5 et une forme dimérique prédominante à pH inférieurs à 6,5 et dont le caractère inhibiteur ou non n’a pas encore été déterminé. Sur la base de la structure 3D de l’IF1 bovin, nous avons voulu identifier les régions de dimérisation du peptide de levure en utilisant la technique de marquage de spin couplée à de la spectroscopie RPE. En plaçant des marqueurs de spin (MTSL) en partie médiane(E33C) ou en C-terminale(L54C),nous avons pu favoriser l’interface de dimérisation plutôt en partie médiane du peptide. Ce travail est encore au stade embryonnaire et ne nous permet pas, à ce jour, d’identifier la zone exacte de dimérisation.Dans un deuxième volet, nous avons voulu caractériser le mécanisme d’inhibition d’un point de vue dynamique et nous avons pu en préciser les différentes étapes : reconnaissance, verrouillage et stabilisation. Pour cela, nous avons associé la mutagenèse sur le peptide et sur l’enzyme aux cinétiques d’inhibition. Nous avons tout d’abord évalué le rôle de plusieurs résidus situés en C-terminal de la sous-unité β, dans la région de l’interface α/β qui se referme sur le peptide IF1, dans la reconnaissance moléculaire spécifique d’IF1 par l’ATPase mitochondriale. Nous avons ensuite montré que la partie N-terminale d’IF1 joue un rôle mineur dans la reconnaissance moléculaire mais son enroulement autour de la sous-unité γ constitue un loquet important dans la stabilisation du complexe inhibé. Enfin, la fermeture de l’interface catalytique sur IF1 crée une zone de contact entre la "bosse" de la sous-unité γ et la partie C-terminale de la sous-unitéα qui constitue la dernière clef de blocage du peptide au sein de la F1 -ATPase. Ce dernier point de fermeture est le seul qui n’implique aucun résidu du peptide IF1. / The F-type ATPase or ATP synthase, anchored to the inner mitochondrial membrane, is a macromolecular complex using the proton motive force (pmf) generated by the oxydation of small molecules, such as NADH2 and FADH2 , in the different respiratory complexes to form ATP. The pmf is converted into mechanical work by the clockwise rotation of the ATP synthase viewed from the membrane. The γ rotation successively distorts the three catalytic interfaces of the enzyme to allow the synthesis of ATP. Anoxia or hypoxia are cases in which the rotation of ATP synthase proceeds in the direction of ATP hydrolysis. A small peptide named IF1, 63 aminoacids-long in yeast and 84 aminoacids-long in bovine, specifically inhibits the mitochondrial ATP synthase in the direction of ATP hydrolysis. This inhibition is reversible since the peptide is released when the inner mitochondrial membrane is re-energized.In this work, we were interested in characterizing the inhibition mechanism of the mitochondrial ATP synthase of S.cerevisiae by its endogenous peptide IF1. To elaborate and strengthen our statements, we mainly used the structures of IF1 and of the inhibited IF1-F1ATPase complex of B. taurus.The data obtained by Elena Cabezón on bovine and yeast IF1 showed that different forms of the peptide coexist and that their pre-eminence depends on the pH. The bovine IF1 mainly adopts a dimeric form at pH below 6.5 and tetrameric one at pH above 6.5. Its inhibitory properties also vary with the pH. The dimeric form is inhibitory and the tetrameric one is not. In yeast, it is known that a monomeric form is predominant at pH above 6.5 and a dimeric form predominant at pH below 6.5. The monomeric form is inhibitory but nothing has been reported about the inhibitory properties of the dimeric form. By using the structural data of the bovine IF1, we tried to determine the dimerization region of the yeast IF1. For this aim, we decided to combine Site-Directed Spin Labeling (SDSL) with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. Thus, we attached labels on the C-ter or the mid-region and we could propose that the dimer of yeast IF1 preferentially forms by the mid-region. This work is currently in the preliminary stage and other experiments would be necessary to confirm the precize region of dimerization. In a second part, we tried to precise the inhibitory mechanism by detailing the different steps of recognition, locking and stabilization of the inhibited complex. This was achieved by combining the mutagenesis of yeast IF1 and F1ATPase with kinetics of inhibition. First, we evaluated the role of some residues located in the C-terminal part of β subunit in the specific molecular recognition of IF1 by the mitochondrial ATPase. These residues belong to the region of the α/β interface that closes up on IF1 peptide. Then, we showed that the N-terminal part of IF1 plays a minor role in the molecular recognition but its winding around the γ subunit constitute an important lock in the inhibited complex. Finally, the closing of the catalytic interface on IF1 creates a contact region between the α and the γ subunit which is the last key that definitively locks the peptide in the cage "F1ATPase". This last locking point is the only one that does not involve any IF1 residue.

Le précurseur de la protéine amyloïde (APP) est une protéine transmembranaire qui, après coupure séquentielle par les sécrétases β et γ, produit des peptides Aβ trouvés dans les plaques séniles de patientsatteints d’Alzheimer. Par contre, la forme soluble de l’APP (sAPPα), produite après coupure par une sécrétase α, augmente la survie cellulaire, la croissance des neurites et la synaptogénèse. L’APP est coupéeau site α par 3 métalloprotéases : ADAM9, ADAM10 et ADAM17.Notre laboratoire a montré que la stimulation du récepteur purinergique P2X7 (P2X7R) provoque la coupure protéolytique du précurseur de la protéine amyloïde (APP). Le Dr Delarasse a établi que la voie non amyloïdogénique est mise en jeu et que c'est le fragment sAPPα, neuroprotecteur, qui est produit. Deplus, le laboratoire a précédemment démontré que ce ne sont pas les alpha-sécrétases ADAM9, 10 et 17 qui sont responsables du clivage protéolytique de l'APP après stimulation du P2X7R dans les cellules de neuroblastome Neuro2a.Durant mes travaux de thèse, nous avons étudié la voie biochimique menant à la libération du fragments APPα. L’activation du P2X7R stimule la phosphorylation et la translocation rapide à la membrane plasmique de protéines, appelées ezrine, radixine et moesine (ERM) qui ont la capacité d’établir un lien entre la région cytosolique du P2X7R et la F-actine. Les ERM jouent un rôle crucial dans la coupure protéolytique de l’APP par les métalloprotéases ADAM. En effet, l’inhibition de l’expression des ERM par RNA interférence aboutit à une absence de coupure de l’APP. Par ailleurs, nous avons observé que les MAPKERK1/2 et JNK et la ROCKinase sont nécessaires à la phosphorylation activatrice des ERM et jouent donc un rôle en amont des ERM. Enfin, nous avons mis en évidence le rôle de la PI3K en aval des ERM.Par ailleurs, nous avons démontré que l’activation du récepteur purinergique P2X7 entraînait la coupure protéolytique de la molécule NrCAM par ADAM17 aboutissant à la libération du fragment soluble del’ectodomaine de NrCAM. Les résultats obtenus indiquent que la coupure de NrCAM est dépendante de l’activation et de la fixation des ERM à NrCAM. Ces résultats suggèrent fortement que les ERM sont indispensables à la coupure protéolytique de différents substrats après stimulation du P2X7R.Les données obtenues mettent en évidence un mécanisme moléculaire original et important qui fait jouer aux ERM un rôle central de « liens moléculaires » dans le clivage protéolytique des protéines transmembranaires. A ce stade de notre étude, nous émettons l’hypothèse que les ERM agissent en aval du récepteur P2X7, en liant les substrats et/ou les protéases qu’ils regroupent à la membrane plasmique favorisant ainsi le clivage des substrats. / The amyloid protein precursor (APP) can be cleaved in neural cells by α-secretases to produce the soluble APP ectodomain (sAPPα), which is neuroprotective. We have shown previously that activation of the purinergic receptor P2X7 (P2X7R), a member of the P2X receptor family of ATP-gated cation channels, triggers sAPPα shedding from neural cells. Here, we demonstrate that theactivation of Ezrin/Radixin/Moesin proteins (ERM) is required for the P2X7R-dependent proteolyticprocessing of APP leading to sAPPα release. Indeed, the down regulation of ERM by siRNA blocksthe P2X7R-dependent shedding of sAPPα. We also show that P2X7R stimulation triggers thephosphorylation of ERM. Thus, ezrin translocates to the plasma membrane to interact with P2X7R.Using specific pharmacological inhibitors, we have established the order in which several enzymestrigger the P2X7R-dependent release of sAPPα. Thus, a Rho-kinase and the MAPK modules ERK1/2and JNK act upstream of ERM while a PI3Kinase activity is triggered downstream. This work for the first time identifies ERM as major partners in the regulated non-amyloidogenic processing of APP. Inaddition, we have recently established that the stimulation of P2X7R leads to the proteolytic cleavage of NrCAM by ADAM17 and the shedding of the soluble extracellular domain of NrCAM. Our results clearly show that the proteolytic cleavage of NrCAM is dependant of ERM activation and fixation tothe intracellular region of NrCAM. Thus, our results strongly suggest that ERM are required for the proteolytic cleavage of numerous substrates after P2X7R stimulation. Our findings suggest that ERM play a central role in the proteolytic cleavage of transmembrane proteins and act as molecular linkswhich aggregate ADAMs and substrates at the plasma membrane promoting the cleavage of substrates.

La sarcopénie ou perte involontaire progressive de la masse musculaire chez le sujet âgé s’accompagne de l’altération de nombreux phénomènes physiologiques comparables à ceux observés chez les myopathes. Le processus de régénération musculaire est très ralenti, les activités protéolytiques intracellulaires sont modifiées et de nombreuses fonctions cellulaires sont perturbées en raison d’un stress oxydatif incontrôlé. L’intervention des calpaïnes, protéases neutres calcium-dépendantes, dans les processus associés au développement, à la régénération et à l’intégrité du tissu musculaire est incontestable. Les calpaïnes apparaissent, en effet, comme des acteurs clefs des voies de transductions liées à la myogenèse, la prolifération et la survie cellulaire. Toutefois aucune étude permettant d’établir la relation vieillissement du tissu musculaire- activité calpaïne n’a été entreprise à ce jour. Le projet a donc pour but principal d’inventorier les signaux pro-sarcopéniques interagissant avec les calpaïnes et d’établir leurs relations avec la fonctionnalité des cellules satellites, le stress oxydant et l’apoptose. Nous avons mis en évidence une augmentation de l’expression/activité des calpaïnes durant le vieillissement musculaire chez le rat et identifié des partenaires des calpaïnes impliqués dans des fonctions physiologiques altérées durant la sarcopénie: homéostasie calcique, activité contractile, production d’ATP, régénération musculaire. Nous avons également montré que l’induction d’un stress oxydant entraîne l’activation des calpaïnes au cours de la prolifération des cellules satellites de façon corrélée à une augmentation de l’apoptose. D’une manière intéressante, un traitement préventif par un antioxydant naturel d’écorce de pin (Oligopin®) est capable de prévenir à la fois l’apoptose et l’activation des calpaïnes. L’ensemble de ces résultats suggère que le stress oxydant associé au vieillissement induirait des mécanismes calpaïno-dépendants responsables de l’altération de processus essentiels à la fonction musculaire. / Aging is associated with a progressive and involuntary loss of muscle mass also known as sarcopenia. This condition represents a major public health concern. Although sarcopenia is well documented, the molecular mechanisms of this condition still remain unclear. The calcium-dependent proteolytic system is composed of calcium dependent cystein-proteases named calpains. Calpains are involved in a large number of physiological processes such as muscle growth and differentiation, and pathological conditions such as muscular dystrophies. The aim of this study was to determine the involvement of the proteolytic system in the phenotype associated with sarcopenia by identify the key proteins (substrates or regulators) interacting with calpains during muscle aging and identify pro-sarcopenic signals after oxidative stress induction in satellite cells. Muscle aging was correlated with the up-regulation of calpain activity. Ryanodine receptor 1, ATP synthase subunit alpha and alpha actinin 3 appear as key partners of calpains during muscle aging. Such interactions suggest an implication of calpains in many processes altered during aging including cytoskeletal disorganisation, regulation of calcium homeostasis and mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, oxidative stress induction led to an increase in the activity of calpains correlated to an increase in apoptosis of proliferating satellite cells. In a very interesting way, a preventive treatment with a commercial antioxidant (Oligopin®) prevented these effects. All these data suggest that oxidative stress coupled observed during muscle aging could lead to calpaïno-dependent mechanisms responsible for apoptosis and muscle dysorganisation.

A hipertensão arterial (HA) é um dos fatores de risco mais importantes para a ocorrência de eventos cardíacos e cerebrovasculares, além de estar associada ao desenvolvimento de doenças renais e metabólicas. Recentemente, novas abordagens têm sido utilizadas no tratamento da HA, especialmente em pacientes hipertensos resistentes ao tratamento farmacológico. Dentre tais abordagens, destaca-se a terapia de ativação barorreflexa (TAB), a qual, por meio de um dispositivo eletrônico cirurgicamente implantável, estimulam-se os barroceptores carotídeos, causando inibição da atividade simpática e resultando em redução da pressão arterial (PA). Embora os resultados de estudos clínicos utilizando a TAB em pacientes hipertensos resistentes ao tratamento farmacológico sejam promissores, é necessário um melhor entendimento dos mecanismos envolvidos nesta abordagem. Pela proximidade anatômica dos barorreceptores e dos quimiorreceptores carotídeos, bem como de suas respectivas aferências, a TAB poderia estar ativando não somente o barorreflexo, mas, também o quimiorreflexo carotídeo. Nesse sentido, um dos objetivos do presente estudo foi o de avaliar o papel dos quimiorreceptores carotídeos nas respostas hemodinâmicas e respiratórias provocadas pela estimulação elétrica do seio carotídeo/nervo do seio carotídeo (ESC) em ratos acordados. Ratos Wistar adultos jovens foram divididos em 4 grupos experimentais: Controle (CONT); Ratos com inativação dos quimiorreceptores carotídeos (QUIMIO-X); Ratos com inativação dos barorreceptores carotídeos (BARO-X) e ratos com inativação simultânea de baro- e quimiorreceptores carotídeos (TOTAL-X). As inativações seletivas foram realizadas cirurgicamente. Os ratos pertencentes aos 4 grupos foram instrumentados com um eletrodo bipolar no seio carotídeo/nervo do seio carotídeo esquerdo, e cateteres na artéria e veia femorais para registro da PA e administração de drogas, respectivamente. Os animais foram submetidos à ESC (Intensidade: 5 V; Largura de pulso: 1 ms; Frequências: 15, 30, 60 e 90 Hz; Duração do estímulo: 20 s). Os resultados mostraram que a ESC causou significativa resposta hipotensora nos ratos do grupoCONT. O efeito hipotensor da ESC foi maior em animais do grupo QUIMIO-X, indicando que os quimiorreceptores carotídeos foram ativados no grupo CONT, atenuando a resposta hipotensora. O grupo BARO-X apresentou respostas hipertensoras, denotando ativação exclusiva dos quimiorreceptores carotídeos. Em relação às respostas da frequência cardíaca (FC) à ESC, o grupo CONT não apresentou alterações da mesma, enquanto que os grupos QUIMIO-X e BARO-X apresentaram significativa bradicardia. O grupo TOTAL-X não apresentou nenhuma alteração hemodinâmica (PA e FC) durante a ESC. Adicionalmente, as respostas respiratórias (frequência respiratória, fR; volume corrente, VT; e ventilação minuto, VE) à ESC (Intensidade: 3 V; Largura de pulso: 1 ms; Frequências: 15, 30, 60 e 90 Hz; Duração do estímulo: 20 s), foram avaliadas em animais dos grupos CONT e QUIMIO-X. A ESC causou aumento da ventilação no grupo CONT, evidenciado por aumentos significativos da fR, VT e VE. O aumento da ventilação observado durante a ESC foi substancialmente atenuado pela inativação dos quimiorreceptores carotídeos (QUIMIO-X). No sentido de se investigar formas para modulação da atividade dos quimiorreceptores carotídeos, no presente estudo foram avaliados, também, os efeitos do antagonismo de receptores P2X3 sobre a respiração, sensibilidade do quimiorreflexo periférico e ocorrência de apneias em ratos recémnascidos. Os resultados mostraram que o antagonismo agudo de receptores P2X3 não afetou a respiração basal, mas reduziu a sensibilidade do quimiorreflexo periférico e a ocorrência de apneia. Em conjunto, os resultados do presente estudo mostram que os quimiorreceptores carotídeos influenciam as respostas hemodinâmicas e respiratórias à ESC em ratos acordados. Adicionalmente, o antagonismo de receptores P2X3 pode modular a atividade dos quimiorreceptores carotídeos, reduzindo a sua sensibilidade sem afetar a respiração basal, além de reduzir a ocorrência de apneia em ratos recém-nascidos. / Hypertension is one of the main risk factors for heart and cerebrovascular diseases, and also, is related to renal and metabolic disorders. Recently, new approaches have been used to treat hypertension, especially in hypertensive patients resistant to pharmacological treatment. Among these approaches, the baroreflex activation therapy (BAT) can be highlighted. BAT consists in the electrical stimulation of the carotid baroreceptors, inhibiting the sympathetic activity and resulting in blood pressure reduction. Although results from clinical trials have been promising, studies of the mechanisms involved in BAT are still needed. Because of the anatomic proximity between carotid baroreceptors and chemoreceptors, BAT could activate not only the baroreflex but also the carotid chemoreflex. Thus, part of this study was designed to evaluate the role of carotid chemoreceptors in the hemodynamic and respiratory responses to electrical stimulation of the carotid sinus/carotid sinus nerve (ESC) in conscious rats. Male adult Wistar rats were divided into 4 experimental groups: Control (CONT), Rats with deactivation of carotid chemoreceptors (CHEMOX); Rats with removal of carotid baroreceptors (BARO-X); and Rats with simultaneous carotid baro- and chemoreceptors deactivation (TOTAL-X). Selective deactivations were surgically performed. In addition, all rats were instrumented with a bipolar electrode in the left carotid sinus/carotid sinus nerve and femoral artery and vein catheterization to blood pressure (BP) recordings and drug administration, respectively. Animals were subjected to ESC (Intensity: 5V; Pulse width: 1 ms; Frequencies: 15, 30, 60 e 90 Hz, stimulus duration: 20 s). Results showed that ESC caused significant hypotensive response in CONT. The hypotensive effect of ESC was greater in CHEMO-X group, indicating that carotid chemoreceptors were activated in CONT, attenuating the hypotensive response. BARO-X group presented hypertensive responses to ESC, indicating full activation of the carotid chemoreceptors. Regarding heart rate (HR), CONT showed no response, whereas CHEMO-X and BARO-X presented a marked bradycardia. TOTAL-X group did not showed any hemodynamic (BP and HR) response to ESC. Moreover, the respiratoryresponses (Respiratory rate, fR; tidal volume, VT; and minute ventilation VE) to ESC (Intensity: 3V; Pulse width: 1 ms; Frequencies: 15, 30, 60 e 90 Hz, stimulus duration: 20 s), were analysed in CONT and CHEMO-X animals. ESC significantly increased ventilation in CONT, increasing fR, VT e VE. These respiratory responses elicited by ESC were blunted by carotid chemoreceptors deactivation (CHEMO-X). In order to investigate methods for carotid chemoreceptors modulation, the present study also examined the P2X3 antagonism effects on the respiration, peripheral chemoreflex sensitivity and apnoea occurrence in newborn rats. The results showed that acute P2X3 antagonism did not affected basal respiration but reduced peripheral chemoreflex sensitivity and apnoea occurrence. Taken together, results from the present study show that the carotid chemoreceptors impact hemodynamic and respiratory responses to ESC in conscious rats. Moreover, P2X3 antagonism may be used to modulate carotid chemoreceptors activity, inhibiting its sensitivity without effects over baseline respiration, and also to reduce apnoea occurrence in newborn rats.

ATP is the main cellular energy generated by the enzyme ATP synthase in almost all organisms from bacteria to vertebrates. While malfunction of the ATP synthase complex is responsible for several disease conditions, the enzyme itself can be used as a potent molecular drug target to combat many diseases including microbial infections, cancer, tuberculosis, and obesity. Recent widespread escalation of antibiotic resistant microbes in general and E. coli in particular demands novel alternative approaches to combat microbial infections. Inhibition of ATP synthase by inhibitors such as peptides is known to deprive microbes of required energy, resulting in microbial cell death. Therefore, we have examined the venom peptide induced inhibition of E. coli ATP synthase. It was found that venom peptides completely inhibited E. coli ATP synthase and the process of inhibition was found to be fully reversible. This study also links the antimicrobial properties of peptides in part to the inhibition of ATP synthase. Thus, selective use of ATP synthase as a molecular drug may have an important impact on biology and medicine.

Actin is one of the most abundant and highly conserved proteins in eukaryotic cells. The globular protein assembles into long filaments, which form a variety of different networks within the cytoskeleton. The dynamic reorganization of these networks - which is pivotal for cell motility, cell adhesion, and cell division - is based on cycles of polymerization (assembly) and depolymerization (disassembly) of actin filaments. Actin binds ATP and within the filament, actin-bound ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP on a time scale of a few minutes. As ADP-actin dissociates faster from the filament ends than ATP-actin, the filament becomes less stable as it grows older. Recent single filament experiments, where abrupt dynamical changes during filament depolymerization have been observed, suggest the opposite behavior, however, namely that the actin filaments become increasingly stable with time. Several mechanisms for this stabilization have been proposed, ranging from structural transitions of the whole filament to surface attachment of the filament ends. The key issue of this thesis is to elucidate the unexpected interruptions of depolymerization by a combination of experimental and theoretical studies. In new depolymerization experiments on single filaments, we confirm that filaments cease to shrink in an abrupt manner and determine the time from the initiation of depolymerization until the occurrence of the first interruption. This duration differs from filament to filament and represents a stochastic variable. We consider various hypothetical mechanisms that may cause the observed interruptions. These mechanisms cannot be distinguished directly, but they give rise to distinct distributions of the time until the first interruption, which we compute by modeling the underlying stochastic processes. A comparison with the measured distribution reveals that the sudden truncation of the shrinkage process neither arises from blocking of the ends nor from a collective transition of the whole filament. Instead, we predict a local transition process occurring at random sites within the filament. The combination of additional experimental findings and our theoretical approach confirms the notion of a local transition mechanism and identifies the transition as the photo-induced formation of an actin dimer within the filaments. Unlabeled actin filaments do not exhibit pauses, which implies that, in vivo, older filaments become destabilized by ATP hydrolysis. This destabilization can be identified with an acceleration of the depolymerization prior to the interruption. In the final part of this thesis, we theoretically analyze this acceleration to infer the mechanism of ATP hydrolysis. We show that the rate of ATP hydrolysis is constant within the filament, corresponding to a random as opposed to a vectorial hydrolysis mechanism. / Aktin ist eines der am häufigsten vorkommenden und am stärksten konservierten Proteine in eukaryotischen Zellen. Dieses globuläre Protein bildet lange Filamente, die zu einer großen Vielfalt von Netzwerken innerhalb des Zellskeletts führen. Die dynamische Reorganisation dieser Netzwerke, die entscheidend für Zellbewegung, Zelladhäsion, und Zellteilung ist, basiert auf der Polymerisation (dem Aufbau) und der Depolymerisation (dem Abbau) von Aktinfilamenten. Aktin bindet ATP, welches innerhalb des Filaments auf einer Zeitskala von einigen Minuten in ADP hydrolysiert wird. Da ADP-Aktin schneller vom Filamentende dissoziiert als ATP-Aktin, sollte ein Filament mit der Zeit instabiler werden. Neuere Experimente, in denen abrupte dynamische Änderungen während der Filamentdepolymerisation beobachtet wurden, deuten jedoch auf ein gegenteiliges Verhalten hin: Die Aktinfilamente werden mit der Zeit zunehmend stabiler. Mehrere Mechanismen für diese Stabilisierung wurden bereits vorgeschlagen, von strukturellen Übergängen des gesamten Filaments bis zu Wechselwirkungen der Filamentenden mit dem experimentellen Aufbau. Das zentrale Thema der vorliegenden Dissertation ist die Aufklärung der unerwarteten Unterbrechungen der Depolymerisation. Dies geschieht durch eine Kombination von experimentellen und theoretischen Untersuchungen. Mit Hilfe neuer Depolymerisationexperimente mit einzelnen Filamenten bestätigen wir zunächst, dass die Filamente plötzlich aufhören zu schrumpfen und bestimmen die Zeit, die von der Einleitung der Depolymerisation bis zum Auftreten der ersten Unterbrechung vergeht. Diese Zeit unterscheidet sich von Filament zu Filament und stellt eine stochastische Größe dar. Wir untersuchen daraufhin verschiedene hypothetische Mechanismen, welche die beobachteten Unterbrechungen verursachen könnten. Die Mechanismen können experimentell nicht direkt unterschieden werden, haben jedoch verschiedene Verteilungen für die Zeit bis zur ersten Unterbrechung zur Folge. Wir berechnen die jeweiligen Verteilungen, indem wir die zugrundeliegenden stochastischen Prozesse modellieren. Ein Vergleich mit der gemessenen Verteilung zeigt, dass der plötzliche Abbruch des Depolymerisationsprozesses weder auf eine Blockade der Enden, noch auf einen kollektiven strukturellen Übergang des gesamten Filaments zurückzuführen ist. An Stelle dessen postulieren wir einen lokalen Übergangsprozess, der an zufälligen Stellen innerhalb des Filaments auftritt. Die Kombination von weiteren experimentellen Ergebnissen und unserem theoretischen Ansatz bestätigt die Vorstellung eines lokalen Übergangsmechanismus und identifiziert den Übergang als die photo-induzierte Bildung eines Aktindimers innerhalb des Filaments. Nicht fluoreszenzmarkierte Aktinfilamente zeigen keine Unterbrechungen, woraus folgt, dass ältere Filamente in vivo durch die ATP-Hydrolyse destabilisiert werden. Die Destabilisierung zeigt sich durch die Beschleunigung der Depolymerisation vor der Unterbrechung. Im letzten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit untersuchen wir diese Beschleunigung mit theoretischen Methoden, um auf den Mechanismus der ATP-Hydrolyse zu schließen. Wir zeigen, dass die Hydrolyserate von ATP innerhalb des Filaments konstant ist, was dem sogenannten zufälligen Hydrolysemechanismus entspricht und im Gegensatz zum sogenannten vektoriellen Mechanismus steht.

ABC transporters consist of two transmembrane domains (TMDs) that form the transport channel and two cytosolic nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) that energize transport via ATP binding and hydrolysis. Using site-directed mutagenesis, the role of highly conserved residues in the NBDs of Abcb1a was investigated. / In both NBDs of Abcb1a the A-loop aromatic residue is a tyrosine: Y397 in NBD1 and Y1040 in NBD2. Another tyrosine (618 in NBD1 and 1263 in NBD2) also appears to lie close to the ATP molecule. These four tyrosine residues were mutated to tryptophan and the effect of these substitutions on transport properties, ATP binding, and ATP hydrolysis was analyzed. Y618W and Y1263W enzymes had catalytic characteristics similar to wild-type (WT) Abcb1a. On the other hand, Y397W and Y1040W showed impaired transport and greatly reduced ATPase activity, including an ∼10-fold increase in KM(ATP). Thus, Y397 and Y1040 play an important role in Abcb1a catalysis. / Since it was speculated that ABC transporters utilize a catalytic base to hydrolyse the beta-gamma phosphodiester bond of ATP, a search for that residue was undertaken. Six pairs of highly conserved acidic residues in the NBDs of Abcb1a were investigated. Removal of the charge in D558N and D1203N as well as in E552Q and E1197Q produced enzymes with severely impaired transport. These mutants were purified and characterized with respect to ATPase activity. Mutants D558N and D1203N retained some drug-stimulated ATPase activity and vanadate (Vi) trapping of 8-azido-[alpha32P]nucleotide confirmed slower basal and drug-stimulated hydrolysis. The E552Q and E1197Q mutants showed absence of ATPase activity but Vi trapping of 8-azido-[alpha 32P]nucleotide was observed, at a level similar to that of WT Abcb1a. Photolabelling by 8-azido-[alpha32P]nucleotide, in the presence or absence of drug, was also detected in the absence of Vi. The ATPase activity, binding affinity, and trapping properties of these glutamate residues were further analyzed. In addition to the E→Q mutants, the glutamates were individually mutated to D, N, and A. The double mutants E552Q/E1197Q, E552Q/K1072R, and K429R/E552Q were also analyzed. The results obtained suggest that 1) the length of the side-chain is important for the catalytic activity, whereas the charge is critical for full turnover to occur, 2) formation of the catalytic transition state does occur in the mutant site in the single-site mutants, suggesting that E552 and E1197 are not classical catalytic carboxylates, 3) steps after formation of the transition state are severely impaired in these mutant enzymes, 4) NBD1 and NBD2 are functionally asymmetric, and 5) the glutamates are involved both in NBD-NBD communication and transition-state formation through orientation of the linchpin residue.