La réponse humorale aux antigènes (Ag) thymo-indépendants (TI) tels que les polysaccharides (PS) bactériens ne nécessite pas l’intervention des lymphocytes T mais requiert un dialogue entre lymphocytes B et cellules présentatrices d’Ag (APC). La singularité des Ag TI est qu’ils peuvent générer une réponse anticorps (Ac) in vivo en l’absence de signal danger exogène. Nous avons postulé que les PS bactériens sont capables d’induire un état de compétence des APC leur permettant d’exercer leur fonction auxiliaire vis à vis de la différenciation des lymphocytes B induite par les Ag TI. Notre travail a consisté, d’une part, à identifier la nature de l’APC et à documenter l’état de compétence des APC induit par un PS capsulaire d’une souche de pneumocoque (PS3). Nos résultats montrent que les macrophages et les cellules dendritiques peuvent tous deux exercer une fonction auxiliaire vis-à-vis de la réponse Ac aux Ag TI via la sécrétion de deux cytokines, BAFF et APRIL. Nos données montrent également que ce PS bactérien inhibe différentes réponses impliquant les cellules T (réponse humorale à un Ag thymo-dépendant, hypersensibilité retardée induite par un haptène fort). L’analyse phénotypique et fonctionnelle de cellules dendritiques exposées au PS3 nous conduit à proposer que le PS induit la différenciation des cellules dendritiques en cellules tolérogènes. L’ensemble de nos données suggèrent que l’état de compétence des APCs liée à leur fonction auxiliaire dans la réponse Ac aux Ag TI est équivalent à la fonction tolérogène, déjà documentée dans la littérature. Cette dualité des APCs induite par le PS (stimulatrices vis à vis de la réponse Ac, tolérogènes vis à vis des réponses cellulaires) pourrait jouer un rôle physiologique important au niveau de la muqueuse intestinale. / The humoral immune response against thymus-independent (TI) antigens (Ag) such as bacterial capsular polysaccharides (PS) does not require the help from T lymphocytes but needs a dialog between B cells and antigen presenting cells (APC). The particularity of TI Ag is their ability to generate an antibody response in vivo in the absence of exogenous danger signals. We have postulated that bacterial PS induce a competence status of the APC enabling them to act as auxiliary cells towards the B cells differentiation induced by TI Ag. In the present study, we have indentified the nature of the APC and explored the competence status induced by a capsular PS from S. pneumoniae (PS3). Our results show that both macrophages and dendritic cells (DC) can exert an auxiliary function towards the humoral response to TI Ag by secreting two major cytokines, BAFF and APRIL. We have also shown that bacterial PS suppress different responses involving T cells as humoral response to a thymus-dependent Ag and delayed hyper-sensitivity induced by a potent hapten. The phenotypical and functional analysis of DC exposed to PS3 led us to postulate that PS induces the differentiation of DC into tolerogenic cells. Altogether our findings suggest that the APC’s competence status enabling them to provide help to B cells against TI Ag is their tolerogenic function. This double function of the APC induced by PS (stimulatory towards antibody response and tolerogenic towards cellular responses) could be important in the intestinal mucosal sites.

Taquizoítos de T. gondii esterilizados por radiação ionizante é uma vacina interessante para induzir uma imunidade semelhante à infecção, mas sem a formação de cistos. Neste estudo avaliamos as populações celulares do sangue e do baço induzidas pela imunização, a resposta imune humoral, celular e a proteção após desafio com parasitas viáveis. Camundongos foram imunizados com taquizoítos de T. gondii irradiados por v.o. ou i.p.. Os animais foram desafiados com 10 cistos da cepa ME-49 ou VEG por via oral e apresentaram altos níveis de proteção com baixa carga parasitária. Camundongos imunizados por i.p. e v.o. apresentaram anticorpos específicos no soro e o aumento das populações de células B, plasmócitos, células TCD4+ e TCD8+ tanto no sangue como no baço. As células esplênicas de camundongos imunizados por i.p. mostraram a produção de IL-10, IFN-γ e IL-4. Células TCD4+ e células B do baço de camundongos imunizados por i.p. proliferaram após a estimulação com antígeno. A imunização com esse modelo vacinal induziu uma resposta imune mediada com células B, TCD4+ e TCD8+, com aumento da resposta imune humoral e celular que são necessárias para proteção do hospedeiro após uma infecção. Essa resposta imune induzida é uma resposta semelhante a uma infecção natural, sendo assim o desenvolvimento de vacinas utilizando a radiação ionizante como uma ferramenta, pode ser um modelo atrativo e eficiente para testar novos imunógenos no futuro. / Tachyzoites of T. gondii sterilized by ionizing radiation is an interesting vaccine for inducing immunity to infection similarly but without the formation of cysts. In this study we evaluated the cell populations from blood and spleen induced by immunization, the humoral immune response, cellular and protection after challenge with viable parasites. Mice were immunized with irradiated tachyzoites of T. gondii by v.o. or i.p.. The animals were challenged with 10 cysts of the ME-49 or VEG strain orally and showed high levels of protection with low worm burden. Immunized mice by i.p. and v.o. present specific antibodies in the serum and increased populations of B cells, plasma cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in blood and spleen. The spleen cells of immunized mice by i.p. showed the production of IL-10, IFN-γ and IL-4. CD4+ T cells and B cells in the spleen of immunized mice i.p. proliferated upon stimulation with antigen. The immunization with this vaccine model induced an immune response mediated by B cells, CD4+ and CD8+ with increased humoral and cellular immune response are necessary for host protection after infection. This induced immune response is a response similar to natural infection, therefore the development of vaccines using ionizing radiation as a tool, can be an attractive and efficient model for testing new immunogens in the future.

Antigen presented to CD4+ T cells by major histocompatibility complex class II molecules (MHCII) plays a key role in adaptive immunity. Antigen presentation is initiated by the proteolytic cleavage of pathogenic or self proteins and loading of resultant peptides to MHCII. The loading and exchange of peptides to MHCII is catalyzed by a nonclassical MHCII molecule, HLA-DM (DM). It is well established that DM promotes peptide exchange in vitro and in vivo. However, the mechanism of DM-catalyzed peptide association and dissociation, and how this would affect epitope selection in human responses to infectious disease remain unclear. The work presented in this thesis was directed towards the understanding of mechanism of DM-mediated peptide exchange and its role in epitope selection. In Chapter II, I measured the binding affinity, intrinsic dissociation half-life and DM-mediated dissociation half-life for a large set of peptides derived from vaccinia virus and compared these properties to the peptide-specific CD4+ T cell responses. These data indicated that DM shapes the peptide repertoire during epitope selection by favoring the presentation of peptides with greater DM-mediated kinetic stability, and DM-susceptibility is a strong and independent factor governing peptide immunogenicity. In Chapter III, I computationally simulated peptide binding competition reactions and found that DM influences the IC50 (50% inhibition concentration) of peptides based on their susceptibility to DM, which was confirmed by experimental data. Therefore, I developed a novel fluorescence polarization-based method to measure DM-susceptibility, reported as a IC50 (change in IC50 in the absence and presence of DM). Traditional assays to measure DM-susceptibility based on differential peptide dissociation rates are cumbersome because each test peptide has to be individually labeled and multiple time point samples have to be collected. However, in this method developed here only single probe peptide has to be labeled and only single reading have to be done, which allows for fast and high throughput measure of DM-susceptibility for a large set of peptides. In Chapter IV, we generated a series of peptide and MHCII mutants, and investigated their interactions with DM. We found that peptides with non-optimal P1 pocket residues exhibit low MHCII affinity, low kinetic stability and high DM-susceptibility. These changes were accompanied with conformational alterations detected by surface plasmon resonance, gel filtration, dynamic light scattering, small-angle X-ray light scattering, antibody-binding, and nuclear magnetic resonance assays. Surprisingly, all these kinetic and conformational changes could be reversed by reconstitution with a more optimal P9 pocket residue. Taken together, our data demonstrated that conformation of MHCII-peptide complex constrained by interactions throughout the peptide binding groove is a key determinant of DM-susceptibility. B cells recognizing cognate antigen on the virion can internalize and process the whole virion for antigen presentation to CD4+ T cells specific for an epitope from any of the virion proteins. In turn, the epitope-specific CD4+ T cells provide intermolecular (also known as noncognate or heterotypic) help to B cells to generate antibody responses against any protein from the whole virion. This viral intermolecular help model in which CD4+ T cells provide help to B cells with different protein specificities was established in small size influenza virus, hepatitis B virus and viral particle systems. For large and complex pathogens such as vaccinia virus and bacteria, the CD4+ T cell-B cell interaction model may be complicated because B cells might not be able to internalize the large whole pathogen. Recently, a study in mice observed that CD4+ T cell help is preferentially provided to B cells with the same protein specificity to generate antibody responses against vaccinia virus. However, for larger pathogens such as vaccinia virus and bacteria the CD4+ T cell-B cell interaction model has yet to be tested in humans. In Chapter V, I measured in 90 recently vaccinated and 7 long-term vaccinia-immunized human donors the CD4+ T cell responses and antibody responses against four vaccinia viral proteins (A27L, A33R, B5R and L1R) known to be strongly targeted by cellular and humoral responses. We found that there is no direct linkage between antibody and CD4+ T cell responses against each protein. However, the presence of immune responses against these four proteins is linked together within donors. Taken together, our data indicated that individual viral proteins are not the primary recognition unit and CD4+ T cells provide intermolecular help to B cells to generate robust antibody responses against large and complicated vaccinia virus in humans.

Le sepsis est un problème mondial de santé publique du fait de son incidence croissante et de sa mortalité importante. Après une première phase très inflammatoire, les patients septiques présentent une profonde immunodépression, objectivée par un risque accru d’infections secondaires et de décès. Dans ce contexte, des thérapeutiques immunostimulantes sont actuellement testées. Afin d’identifier des cibles thérapeutiques pertinentes et des biomarqueurs permettant l’individualisation des traitements, la description exhaustive des mécanismes immunosuppresseurs mis en jeu est primordiale. Les lymphocytes B ont été peu étudiés au cours du sepsis. Des données récentes ont révélé l’existence de cellules B régulatrices dans différents contextes cliniques. Ainsi, nous avons fait l’hypothèse que des lymphocytes B / plasmocytes régulateurs pouvaient être impliqués dans l’établissement de l’immunodépression induite par le sepsis.Chez les patients en choc septique, nous avons montré que les lymphocytes B présentent une perte de leur fonction de prolifération et un phénotype d’épuisement cellulaire. Ils produisent de l’IL-10, cytokine suppressive (Journal of Immunology 2018). Enfin, une plasmocytose circulante apparait, confirmée par cytométrie de masse (Scientific Reports 2018). Dans un modèle murin de sepsis, ces plasmocytes inhibent la prolifération des lymphocytes T ex vivo et expriment des marqueurs phénotypiques suggérant pour la première fois la présence de plasmocytes régulateurs dans le sepsis.L’importance clinique des plasmocytes régulateurs reste à définir (mécanismes régulateurs, liens avec les paramètres cliniques, association avec les réactivations virales…). Elle pourrait conduire à l’établissement de nouveaux biomarqueurs pour le suivi immunitaire des patients et à de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques / Sepsis in a major health problem associated with rising incidence and high mortality rate. In septic patients, an initial proinflammatory response causing life-threatening organ failures is followed by the development of a deep immunosuppression, associated with increased risk of secondary infections and death. In this context, immunostimulating therapies are currently tested. However, success of this strategy requires identification of relevant therapeutical targets and biomarkers allowing individualisation of treatments. B lymphocytes have been poorly studied in sepsis. Moreover, existence of regulatory B cells was recently revealed in several clinical contexts. Thus, we made the assumption that regulatory B lymphocytes or plasma cells could be implied in sepsis-induced immunosuppression establishment.In septic shock patients, we showed that B cells present with decreased proliferation capacity and exhausted-like profile, and are able to produce immunosuppressive IL-10 (Journal of Immunology 2018). We also observed blood plasmacytosis in patients, confirmed by mass cytometry analysis (Scientific Reports 2018). In a murine model of sepsis, the ability of plasma cells to inhibit T cell proliferation ex vivo, and their phenotypic profile suggest for the first time the existence of regulatory plasma cells in sepsis.The role of regulatory plasma cells within sepsis-induced immunosuppression has to be further explored in patients (underlying regulatory mechanisms, associations with clinical outcomes and viral reactivations…). It could highlight novel biomarkers for patients’ monitoring and innovative therapeutical approaches

L'insuffisance rénale est un problème majeur de santé publique et la transplantation rénale est l’option thérapeutique principale, mais elle comporte le risque de rejet d'organe. Les cellules B jouent un rôle important dans le rejet médié par les anticorps (AMR). Au cours de l'AMR chronique, les structures lymphoïdes tertiaires, semblables aux centres germinatifs (GC), apparaissent dans l'organe rejeté, associées à la production des plasmocytes et des lymphocytes B mémoires spécifiques du donneur. Ces populations de lymphocyte B sont souvent mal contrôlées par les traitements actuels. La myeloid cell leukemia 1 (Mcl-1), un membre anti-apoptotique de la famille de B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), est essentiel pour maintenir l’organisation de GC et de la différenciation des cellules B. Nous rapportons ici l'infiltration de cellules B exprimant Mcl-1 dans le rein de patients atteints d'AMR chronique, comme cela a été observé pour les cellules (pré) GC. Suite à l’abrogation de la signalisation du récepteur des cellules B (BCR), par l'inhibition de la spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK) nous avons observé une diminution de la viabilité des cellules GC, par l'intermédiaire d'une régulation de Mcl-1. La régulation négative de Mcl-1 est coordonnée au niveau de la transcription, potentiellement par l'intermédiaire du transducteur de signal et de l'activateur de la transcription 3 (STAT3), comme cela a été observé par (1) une translocation altérée de STAT3 dans le noyau suivant l'inhibition de SYK, et (2) les niveaux inférieurs de transcription de Mcl-1. Par ailleurs, la surexpression de Mcl-1 inhibe l'apoptose après l'inhibition du SYK. Des études avec des cellules B primaires, issues d'amygdales, ont confirmé que l'inhibition de SYK a diminué la survie cellulaire. Nous avons également constaté que l'inhibition du SYK a diminué les niveaux de protéines Mcl-1 dans les cellules B primaire, et que l’activation de ces cellules a été inhibée, tel que déterminé par l'expression de CD80 et des taux inférieurs de sécrétion d'IgG dans les cellules B primaires activées in vitro. Nos travaux suggèrent que la voie SYK-Mcl-1 peut offrir de nouvelles opportunités pour le traitement et la prévention de l'AMR / Renal failure is a major public health concern and renal transplantation is the main therapeutic option, however it comes with the risk of organ rejection. B-cells play an important role in antibody-mediated rejection (AMR). During chronic AMR, tertiary lymphoid germinal center (GC)-like structures appear in the rejected organ, associated with de novo production of donor-specific plasma and memory B-cells. Which are B-cell populations that are often poorly controlled by current treatments. Myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1), an anti-apoptotic member of the B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) family, is essential for maintaining the GC reaction and B-cell differentiation. We report here the infiltration of B-cells expressing Mcl-1 in the kidney of patients with chronic AMR, as observed for (pre-)GC cells. The impairment of B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling, by inhibition of spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK), reduced viability and Mcl-1 protein levels in GC like cells. This downregulation is coordinated at the transcriptional level, potentially via signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), as shown by (1) impaired translocation of STAT3 to the nucleus following SYK inhibition, and (2) the lower levels of Mcl-1 transcription upon STAT3 inhibition. Moreover, overexpression of Mcl-1 prevented cells from entering apoptosis after SYK inhibition. In vitro studies with primary tonsillar B-cells confirmed that SYK inhibition decreased cell survival. We also found that SYK inhibition decreased Mcl-1 protein levels in primary B-cells, and that B-cell activation was inhibited, as determined by CD80 expression and lower levels of IgG secretion in tonsillar B-cells activated in vitro. Overall, our data suggest that the SYK-Mcl-1 pathway may provide new opportunities for the treatment and prevention of AMR

Malgré la présence d’un traitement très efficace disponible pour les personnes vivant avec le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine (PVVIH) qui permet à celles-ci d’avoir une espérance de vie presque normale, une inflammation chronique demeure toujours, et celle-ci est la cause du développement prématuré de comorbidités associées au vieillissement, comme des maladies cardiovasculaires (MCV) telles que l’athérosclérose. Cette inflammation chronique se traduit entre autres par un excès de la molécule « B-cell activating factor » (BAFF), un facteur de survie et différenciation des lymphocytes B. L’excès de BAFF dans le contexte du VIH est associé notamment avec la dérégulation du compartiment des lymphocytes B, l’hyperglobulinémie, le bris de tolérance et certaines manifestations autoimmunes. De façon importante, nous avons caractérisé l’augmentation des fréquences des cellules B de la zone marginale de type précurseurs (MZp), une population innée dont la sélection implique BAFF, et qui chez les individus non-infectés a démontré une forte capacité régulatrice et anti-inflammatoire. L’objectif de ce travail était, dans un premier temps, d’identifier, à l’aide d’analyses transcriptomique et par cytométrie en flux, le phénotype des MZp provenant du sang des PVVIH. Dans un second temps, l’objectif de ce travail était d’étudier la corrélation entre les niveaux de BAFF et de son analogue « A proliferation-inducing ligand » (APRIL) avec la dérégulation des MZp ainsi que des marqueurs classiques du développement de MCV dans les spécimens sanguins provenant d’individus de la Cohorte Canadienne VIH et Vieillissement. Nos résultats démontrent une altération dans le phénotype B régulateur (Breg) des MZp, traduit par une baisse d’expression des récepteurs nucléaires NR4A1, NR4A2 et NR4A3, ainsi qu’une baisse de leur fonction régulatrice. Cette baisse d’expression et de fonction semble être directement en lien avec l’excès de BAFF dans le contexte du VIH. De plus, nous démontrons que BAFF corrèle avec plusieurs facteurs de risque pour le développement des MCV, tandis qu’APRIL corrèle négativement avec ceux-ci. De façon intéressante, APRIL est capable de moduler positivement l’expression des NR4As par les MZp in vitro. Nos résultats suggèrent que des stratégies permettant de moduler les niveaux de BAFF et/ou APRIL pourraient être envisagées afin de réduire le fardeau inflammatoire chez les PVVIH et restaurer l’immunocompétence des MZp. / Despite the existence of a very efficient treatment that allows people living with the human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV) to live a relatively normal life, chronic inflammation persists and is the cause of the premature development of age-associated comorbidities, such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD) like atherosclerosis. This chronic inflammation involves an excess of “B-cell activation factor” (BAFF), a survival and differentiation factor for B-cells, especially for Marginal Zone B-cells (MZ), which are innate type B-cells that depend on BAFF for their selection. The excess of BAFF is associated with B-cell deregulations, breakage of tolerance and certain auto-immune manifestations. Notably, we have reported that frequencies of precursor MZ B-cells (MZp) were increased in the blood of HIV-1 infected individuals. As such, we have recently shown that in uninfected individuals, MZp possess strong regulatory and anti-inflammatory capacities. The objective of this work was to first, identify, based on transcriptomic and flow-cytometry analyses, the gene and molecular phenotype of MZ populations from the blood of PLHIV, and secondly, to study the correlation between levels of BAFF and its analogue, “A proliferation-inducing ligand” (APRIL) with MZ deregulation and classical CVD markers in blood samples from individuals of the Canadian HIV and Aging Cohort Study. Our results show an alteration in the regulatory B-cell (Breg) phenotype of MZp, related to a downregulation of the nuclear receptors NR4A1, NR4A2 and NR4A3. Furthermore, we find a reduction of the regulatory function of blood MZp. This diminished expression and function seems to be linked to the excess of BAFF in the HIV context. Furthermore, we demonstrate that BAFF correlates with several risk factors for atherosclerosis development, while APRIL negatively correlate with these factors. Interestingly, APRIL positively modulates the expression of NR4As by MZp in vitro. Our results suggest that BAFF and/or APRIL modulation strategies could be envisaged to lower the inflammatory burden in people living with HIV and restore MZp immunocompetence.

INTRODUÇÃO: O diagnóstico diferencial dos processos linfoproliferativos cutâneos de célula B permanece um desafio para patologistas, dermatologistas, hematologistas e oncologistas, apesar dos recentes avanços imunoistoquímicos e moleculares. OBJETIVO: Este trabalho avaliou o auxílio diagnóstico e as limitações da pesquisa da clonalidade utilizando a biologia molecular nos linfomas primários cutâneos de célula B e pseudolinfomas de células B, assim como a relevância da análise dos dados em conjunto com informações clínicas, histológicas e imunoistoquímicas. MÉTODOS: O estudo incluiu 31 casos de processos linfoproliferativos cutâneos de célula B classificados à histologia e imunoistoquímica como 14 linfomas, 6 pseudolinfomas e 11 casos inconclusivos. A pesquisa da clonalidade foi realizada em todos os casos por meio da pesquisa do rearranjo dos genes da cadeia leve kappa e pesada utilizando o método de PCR. RESULTADOS: Os resultados confirmaram monoclonalidade em 61,5% dos linfomas. Em adição, o método evidenciou monoclonalidade em 20% dos casos inconclusivos à avaliação histológica e imunoistoquímica. A pesquisa do rearranjo dos genes de cadeia leve kappa resultou mais contributiva em relação à pesquisa do rearranjo dos genes da cadeia pesada. CONCLUSÕES: Estes resultados demonstraram a utilidade do método no auxilio diagnóstico dos linfomas cutâneos. A maior contribuição no estudo da clonalidade dos processos linfoproliferativos cutâneos de células B, através da pesquisa do rearranjo dos genes de cadeia leve kappa em associação com a pesquisa do rearranjo dos genes de cadeia pesada, sugeriu a necessidade da utilização conjunta das duas técnicas para maior acurácia diagnóstica nestes casos. / INTRODUCTION: The differential diagnosis of the lymphoproliferative B-cell infiltrates remains an important challenge for pathologists, dermatologists, hematologists and oncologists, despite the recent advances in immunohistochemical and molecular techniques. OBJECTIVES: This study has evaluated the diagnostic aid and the limitations of the clonality analysis using molecular biology in cutaneous B-cell lymphomas and pseudolymphomas, as well as the relevance of this analysis when combined with clinical, histological and immunohistochemical data. METHODS: The study covered 31 cases of cutaneous lymphoproliferative B-cell infiltrates classified by histological and immunohistochemical characteristics as 14 lymphomas, 6 pseudolymphomas and 11 non-conclusive cases. The clonality analysis was performed in all cases using PCR to detect the pattern of immunoglobulin light kappa and heavy chains gene rearrangements. RESULTS: The results have confirmed monoclonality in 61,5% of lymphomas. In addition, the method showed monoclonality in 20% of the cases previously classified as a non-conclusive through histological and immunohistochemical evaluation. CONCLUSION: These results highlight the importance of the PCR clonality analysis as an ancillary diagnostic tool in cutaneous lymphoma. The research of the immunoglobulin light kappa gene rearrangement was more efficient resulting in a higher rate of monoclonality detection when compared to the heavy chain analysis. Nevertheless, the use of both protocols improves the sensitivity of the method.

A epidemia causada pelo vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV) é a mais importante das ultimas décadas. A despeito dos avanços no conhecimento da patogenia do vírus e da resposta imune à infecção, até o momento não existe uma vacina eficaz contra a aquisição do HIV. Diversas linhas de evidência indicam que anticorpos neutralizantes ou ligadores, linfócitos T CD4+ e T CD8+ desempenham um papel importante na imunidade contra o HIV. Os anticorpos que são capazes de neutralizar o HIV são direcionados principalmente à glicoproteína do envelope do vírus (env), mas os candidatos vacinais baseados na proteína de envelope gp120 monomérica testados até hoje falharam em induzir proteção nos ensaios de eficácia. Avanços no entendimento da estrutura e função da glicoproteína env tem facilitado o desenvolvimento de uma nova geração de imunógenos baseada em trímeros mais estáveis e solúveis da glicoproteína gp140. Em uma formulação vacinal além da escolha do antígeno, os adjuvantes desempenham um papel fundamental. Os adjuvantes são conhecidos por aumentar a imunogenicidade das vacinas, e nos últimos anos vários compostos, incluindo agonistas de receptores do tipo Toll (TLR) e NOD (NLR) têm demonstrado eficácia em ensaios clínicos. Em estudos prévios, nosso grupo demonstrou que a imunização de camundongos com uma vacina de DNA codificando 18 epítopos para linfócitos T CD4+ do HIV-1 (HIVBr18), foi capaz de induzir resposta específica e ampla de linfócitos T CD4+ e T CD8+. Devido ao importante papel do efeito auxiliar de linfócitos T CD4+ na resposta humoral nas imunizações assistidas por diversos adjuvantes, o objetivo central do trabalho foi verificar se a imunização inicial com a vacina de DNA HIVBr18 seria capaz de aumentar a magnitude/qualidade de resposta imune humoral e celular induzida pelo trímero de gp140 na presença de diferentes adjuvantes. Para tal, camundongos BALB/c foram imunizados inicialmente com a vacina HIVBr18 ou com o vetor vazio e posteriormente com a proteína gp140 na presença dos adjuvantes: completo de Freund (ACF), poly IC, CpG ODN 1826, Monofosforil lipídeo A (MPL), Muramildipeptídeo (MDP), Imiquimod (R837), e Resiquimod (R848). Observamos que a imunização inicial com HIVBr18 foi capaz de fornecer um auxílio cognato para a proliferação específica de linfócitos T CD4+ e T CD8+ e também para a produção da citocina IFNy. A análise da xx resposta humoral mostrou que a imunização inicial com a vacina HIVBr18, foi capaz de influenciar a produção das subclasses de imunoglobulinas, independente do adjuvante testado. No presente trabalho, também analisamos a influência dos adjuvantes na imunogenicidade da gp140. Os animais que receberam os adjuvantes MPL, poly IC e CpG ODN 1826 apresentaram títulos de anticorpos estatisticamente superiores quando comparados aos animais que receberam os adjuvantes Alum, MDP, R837 e R848. Observamos que os animais imunizados com a gp140 na presença dos diferentes adjuvantes desenvolveram células B do centro germinativo e células TCD4+ auxiliar foliculares. Estes resultados nos permitem concluir que a imunização inicial com HIVBr18 é capaz de alterar a qualidade da resposta humoral e celular gp140- específica. Assim, essa formulação poderia ser utilizada para auxiliar e/ou direcionar a resposta imune induzida por outros imunógenos como por exemplo o trímero de gp140. Podemos concluir também que diferentes formulações de adjuvantes que se encontram em ensaios clínicos como poly IC, CpG ODN e MPL podem ser capazes de induzir um resposta imune humoral e celular tão ou mais potente que aquela induzida pelo ACF / The epidemic caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the most important in the last decades. Despite advances in the knowledge about virus pathogenesis and immune response to infection, until now there is not an effective vaccine against HIV acquisition. Several evidences indicate that neutralizing or binding antibodies, CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes play an important role in immunity against HIV. The antibodies that are able to neutralize HIV are primarily directed against the virus envelope glycoprotein (env), but the vaccine candidates based on monomeric gp120 envelope protein tested so far failed to induce protection in efficacy trials. Advances in understanding the structure and function of the env glycoprotein have facilitated the development of a new generation of immunogens based on trimers, a more stable and soluble form of gp140 glycoprotein. In a vaccine formulation, in addition to the antigen, adjuvants play a pivotal role. Adjuvants are known to increase the immunogenicity of vaccines and, in the last years, several compounds, including agonists of Toll-like receptors (TLR) and NOD (NLR), have presented efficacy in clinical trials. In previous work, our group demonstrated that immunization of mice with a DNA vaccine (HIVBr18) encoding 18 CD4+ T cells epitopes from HIV-1 was able to induce a broad CD4+ T and CD8+ T cells specific response.. Given the important role of CD4+ T cells in the humoral response after adjuvant-assisted immunization, the aim of the study was to verify whether an initial immunization with the DNA vaccine HIVBr18 could increase the magnitude/quality of humoral and cellular immune response induced by gp140 trimer in the presence of different adjuvants. Therefore, BALB/c mice were initially immunized with the vaccine HIVBr18 or empty vector and then with gp140 in the presence of the following adjuvants: Freund\'s complete (CFA), poly IC, CpG ODN 1826, monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL), Muramyl dipeptide (MDP), Imiquimod (R837), and Resiquimod (R848). We observed that initial immunization with HIVBr18 was able to provide cognate help for specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells proliferation and also for IFN-y production. Analysis of humoral response showed that initial immunization with the HIVBr18 vaccine was able to alter the production of immunoglobulin subclasses independent of the adjuvant tested. This work also analyzed the influence of adjuvants on the immunogenicity of gp140. Mice that received the adjuvant MPL, poly IC and CpG ODN 1826 presented higher antibody titers when compared to animals that received Alum, MDP, R837 and R848. We observed that mice immunized with gp140 in the presence of all adjuvants tested developed germinal center B cells and follicular helper T cells (TFH). We conclude that initial immunization with HIVBr18 is able to alter the quality of specific humoral and cellular immune responses.. Therefore, this formulation could be used in combination with other immunogens, such as gp140, to help/redirect the immune response. We also conclude that the adjuvants that are in clinical trials such as poly IC, MPL and CpG ODN 1826 may be able to induce stronger humoral and cellular response than CFA

Chez l’adulte les premières étapes du développement hématopoïétique se déroulent dans la moelle osseuse (MO). La contribution de cellules d’origine mésenchymateuse, appelées niches stromales, a été démontrée dans le cas de la maintenance des cellules souches hématopoïétiques (CSH) et du développement des lymphocytes B (LB). Ainsi la maintenance des CSH dépend de niches périvasculaires sécrétant CXCL12 et SCF. Par ailleurs les LB les plus précoces (preproB) sont en contact de cellules stromales CXCL12+, puis migrent vers des cellules stromales exprimant l’interleukine-7 lors de leur différentiation en cellules proB. L’expression du préBCR, marque ensuite l’entrée dans le stade préB. À ce stade, les cellules sont au contact de cellules stromales galectine-1+.Malgré les progrès obtenus dans la compréhension du rôle des niches stromales, leur hétérogénéité et les mécanismes contrôlant la migration et l’adhésion des cellules hématopoïétiques en différenciation restent à mieux définir. Dans cet objectif, nous avons caractérisé phénotypiquement les cellules stromales de la MO mais aussi démontré l’existence d’une niche multi-spécifique, associée aux sinusoïdes et capable de soutenir les CSH et les LB.La contribution des niches dans le développement et la résistance aux traitements des Leucémies Aigues Lymphoblastiques de type B (LAL-B), équivalents pathologiques des LB en développement, a aussi été démontrée. Au cours de mon travail de thèse nous avons révélé l'influence d'un facteur exprimé par des cellules stromales de la MO sur la prolifération des LAL-B. À terme, ces travaux permettront de développer des traitements ciblant les fonctions protectrices des niches tumorales. / In adults, the early stages of hematopoietic development take place in the bone marrow (BM). The contribution of specialized cells of mesenchymal origin, called stromal niches, has been demonstrated in the case of hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) maintenance and B lymphocyte development. Indeed, the maintenance of HSC depends on perivascular niches secreting CXCL12 and SCF. Furthermore progenitor B cells (preproB) are in contact with CXCL12+ stromal cells and migrate towards interleukin 7 expressing stromal cells during their differentiation into proB cells. PreBCR expression then marks the entrance into the preB cell stage. At this point, the cells are in contact with galectin-1+ stromal cells.Although progress have been made in understanding the role of stromal cell niches, their heterogeneity and the mechanisms controlling migration and adhesion of differentiating hematopoietic cells are controversial and remain to be defined. With this objective, we characterized phenotypically BM stromal cells but also demonstrated the existence of a multi-specific niche, associated to sinusoids and able to support both HSC and early B cells.The contribution of BM niches in the development and resistance to treatment of B cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (B-ALL), pathological equivalent of developing B cells has also been demonstrated. During my PhD, our work revealed the influence of a factor expressed by BM stromal cells on the proliferation of B-ALL. Ultimately, this work will allow the development of treatments targeting the protective functions of tumor niches.

<p>IgG, IgM and IgE in complex with antigen have the capacity to regulate specific immune responses. In this investigation, the role of Fc receptors for IgG (FcγRI, FcγRII and FcγRIII) and complement receptors 1 and 2 (CR1/2) for antibody-mediated enhancement of antibody responses are investigated.</p><p>IgM is known to efficiently activate complement and thereby enhance specific antibody responses but it is not known if this involves binding to CR1/2. Using CR1/2 deficient mice, immunized with sheep erythrocytes alone or together with specific IgM, we present evidence that IgM-mediated enhancement is completely dependent on CR1/2 expression, whereas IgG or IgE in complex with bovine serum albumin (BSA) induce strong antibody responses in CR1/2-deficient mice. Enhancement by IgE is mediated via the low affinity receptor for IgE (FcεRII, CD23). However, the receptors which are involved in IgG-mediated enhancement are not known. We find that γ-chain-deficient mice (lacking FcγRI and FcγRIII) have impaired antibody responses to IgG/BSA complexes. In contrast, FcγRIII deficient mice have normal responses, suggesting that FcγRI mediates the effect. Furthermore, IgG/BSA complexes induce up to 189-fold stronger antibody responses in FcγRIIB-deficient mice than in wild-type mice. The threshold dose of IgG/BSA required was lower, the response was sustained for longer and initiated earlier in FcγRIIB-deficient than in wild-type animals. The findings suggest that FcγRIIB acts as a "safety-valve" preventing excessive antibody production during an immune response. We show for the first time that IgG3/BSA complexes can mediate enhancement of specific antibody responses. Their effect does not involve known Fcγ receptors.</p>