The validation approach for assuring quality of software does often include the conduction of tests. Software testing includes a wide range of methodology depending on the system level and the component under test. Graphical user interface (GUI) testing consists of high level tests that assert that functions and design element in user interfaces work as expected. The research conducted in this paper focused on GUI testing of web based applications and the movement towards automated testing within the software industry. The question which formed the basis for the study was the following: How should a generic test automation framework be designed in order to allow maintenance between developers and non-developers? The study was conducted on a Swedish consultant company that provides e-commerce web solutions. A work strategy approach for automated testing was identified and an automation framework prototype was produced. The framework was evaluated through a pilot study where testers participated through the creation of a test suite for a specific GUI testing area. Time estimations were collected as well as qualitative measurements through a follow up survey. This paper presents a work strategy proposal for automated tests together with description of the framework system design. The results are presented with a subsequent discussion about the benefits and complexity of creating and introducing automated tests within large scale systems. Future work suggestions are also addressed together with accountancy of the frameworks usefulness for other testing areas besides GUI testing.

Dans un processus de conception centré sur l'utilisateur, les artefacts évoluent par cycles itératifs jusqu'à ce qu'ils répondent aux exigences des utilisateurs et deviennent ensuite le produit final. Chaque cycle donne l'occasion de réviser la conception et d'introduire de nouvelles exigences qui pourraient affecter les artefacts qui ont été définis dans les phases de développement précédentes. Garder la cohérence des exigences dans tels artefacts tout au long du processus de développement est une activité lourde et longue, surtout si elle est faite manuellement. Actuellement, certains cadres d'applications implémentent le BDD (Développement dirigé par le comportement) et les récits utilisateur comme un moyen d'automatiser le test des systèmes interactifs en construction. Les tests automatisés permettent de simuler les actions de l'utilisateur sur l'interface et, par conséquent, de vérifier si le système se comporte correctement et conformément aux exigences de l'utilisateur. Cependant, les outils actuels supportant BDD requièrent que les tests soient écrits en utilisant des événements de bas niveau et des composants qui n'existent que lorsque le système est déjà implémenté. En conséquence d'un tel bas niveau d'abstraction, les tests BDD peuvent difficilement être réutilisés avec des artefacts plus abstraits. Afin d'éviter que les tests doivent être écrits sur chaque type d'artefact, nous avons étudié l'utilisation des ontologies pour spécifier à la fois les exigences et les tests, puis exécuter des tests dans tous les artefacts partageant les concepts ontologiques. L'ontologie fondée sur le comportement que nous proposons ici vise alors à élever le niveau d'abstraction tout en supportant l'automatisation de tests dans des multiples artefacts. Cette thèse présente tel ontologie et une approche fondée sur BDD et les récits utilisateur pour soutenir la spécification et l'évaluation automatisée des exigences des utilisateurs dans les artefacts logiciels tout au long du processus de développement des systèmes interactifs. Deux études de cas sont également présentées pour valider notre approche. La première étude de cas évalue la compréhensibilité des spécifications des récits utilisateur par une équipe de propriétaires de produit (POs) du département en charge des voyages d'affaires dans notre institut. À l'aide de cette première étude de cas, nous avons conçu une deuxième étude pour démontrer comment les récits utilisateur rédigés à l'aide de notre ontologie peuvent être utilisées pour évaluer les exigences fonctionnelles exprimées dans des différents artefacts, tels que les modèles de tâche, les prototypes d'interface utilisateur et les interfaces utilisateur à part entière. Les résultats ont montré que notre approche est capable d'identifier même des incohérences à grain fin dans les artefacts mentionnés, permettant d'établir une compatibilité fiable entre les différents artefacts de conception de l'interface utilisateur. / In a user-centered design process, artifacts evolve in iterative cycles until they meet user requirements and then become the final product. Every cycle gives the opportunity to revise the design and to introduce new requirements which might affect the artifacts that have been set in former development phases. Keeping the consistency of requirements in such artifacts along the development process is a cumbersome and time-consuming activity, especially if it is done manually. Nowadays, some software development frameworks implement Behavior-Driven Development (BDD) and User Stories as a means of automating the test of interactive systems under construction. Automated testing helps to simulate user's actions on the user interface and therefore check if the system behaves properly and in accordance with the user requirements. However, current tools supporting BDD requires that tests should be written using low-level events and components that only exist when the system is already implemented. As a consequence of such low-level of abstraction, BDD tests can hardly be reused with more abstract artifacts. In order to prevent that tests should be written to every type of artifact, we have investigated the use of ontologies for specifying both requirements and tests once, and then run tests on all artifacts sharing the ontological concepts. The resultant behavior-based ontology we propose herein is therefore aimed at raising the abstraction level while supporting test automation on multiple artifacts. This thesis presents this ontology and an approach based on BDD and User Stories to support the specification and the automated assessment of user requirements on software artifacts along the development process of interactive systems. Two case studies are also presented to validate our approach. The first case study evaluates the understandability of User Stories specifications by a team of Product Owners (POs) from the department in charge of business trips in our institute. With the help of this first case study, we designed a second one to demonstrate how User Stories written using our ontology can be used to assess functional requirements expressed in different artifacts, such as task models, user interface (UI) prototypes, and full-fledged UIs. The results have shown that our approach is able to identify even fine-grained inconsistencies in the mentioned artifacts, allowing establishing a reliable compatibility among different user interface design artifacts.

Cette étude porte sur l’application de différents procédés d’oxydation avancée, POA (plasma d'air humide, électro-Fenton, photo-Fenton et oxydation anodique avec BDD) pour le traitement des colorants de textile. La particularité de ces procédés tient à la génération dans le milieu d’entités très réactives et très oxydantes, les radicaux hydroxyles •OH qui sont capables d’oxyder n’importe quelle molécule organique jusqu’au stade ultime d'oxydation, c'est-à-dire la minéralisation (transformation en CO2 et H2O). Le plasma d'air humide a été appliqué pour l'oxydation d'un colorant azoïque, l'OD 61. Différents catalyseurs (Fe2+, Fe3+ et TiO2) ont été ajoutés dans leurs conditions optimisées afin d'améliorer les performances du système Glidarc. La combinaison des deux catalyseurs: Fe2+ et TiO2 a permis de décolorer 91% de l'OD 61 au bout de 3 heures et d'atteindre un taux d'abattement du COT de l'ordre de 52% après 10 heures de traitement. La méthodologie de la recherche expérimentale a été appliquée dans ce mémoire afin d'étudier l'influence de: l'intensité du courant, la concentration du colorant et le temps d'électrolyse sur la vitesse de disparition de l'OD 61 et afin de déterminer les conditions optimales de sa minéralisation. Dans les conditions optimales obtenues ([colorant] = 0,53.10-3 mol.L-1, I = 250 mA), le procédé électro-Fenton (EF) permet d'atteindre des taux de minéralisation de l'ordre de 98% dans le cas de l'OD 61 et l'AO 7 et de 88% dans le cas de l'indigo carmine. L’identification des produits intermédiaires au cours de l’électrolyse a permis de proposer un mécanisme de minéralisation de l'AO7. Les constantes cinétiques apparentes et absolues ont été déterminées. La dégradation de l'indigo a été étudiée par oxydation anodique avec BDD (OA-BDD) et par procédé photo-Fenton (PF). Cette étude a montré que l'électrolyse de l'indigo suit une cinétique de pseudo premier ordre et que le taux d'abattement du COT était de l'ordre de 97% et 63% respectivement avec OA-BDD et PF. Une étude comparative pour l'oxydation de l'AO 7 a été menée par trois procédés d'oxydation avancée: PF, OA- BDD et EF-Pt et EF-BDD. Cette étude a montré que le procédé photo-Fenton permet d'atteindre des taux d'abattement supérieurs à 90% après seulement 2 heures de traitement. Toutefois, le PF s'est révélé le plus coûteux suite à l'utilisation de la lumière artificielle UV et l'ajout des réactifs. Par ailleurs, le traitement d'un effluent réel issu de l'industrie de textile par le procédé électro-Fenton avec une anode de platine a permis la minéralisation presque totale du rejet initial (94% du COT initial ont été éliminés) / This study concerns the application of various advanced oxidation processes, AOP (humid air plasma, electro-Fenton, photo-Fenton and anodic oxidation with BDD) to treatment of wastewater containing the persistent organic pollutants such as textile dyes. The characteristic of these processes is due to the generation of very reactive and very oxidizing species, hydroxyl radicals •OH which are able to oxidize any organic molecule until the ultimate oxidation stage, i.e. mineralization (transformation into CO2 and H2O). The humid air plasma was applied for DO 61degradation. Various catalysts (Fe2+, Fe3+ and TiO2) were added under their optimized conditions in order to improve the performances of Glidarc system. The combination of Fe2+and TiO2 lead to reach 91% of DO 61 degradation after 3 hours and 52% of TOC abatement after 10 H of treatment. The experimental design methodology was applied in this work in order to investigate the influence of experimental parameters (current intensity, dye concentration and electrolysis time) on the degradation rate of DO 61 dye and then for determining the optimal mineralization conditions. Under the optimal obtained conditions ([dye] = 0.53 10-3 mol.L-1, I = 250 mA), electro-Fenton process can lead to a complete mineralization of dyes: 98% of TOC abatement are obtained in the case of the DO 61 and the AO 7 and 88% in the case of indigo carmine. The identification of the intermediates during electrolysis permitted to propose a mineralization of AO 7 dye under examination. The apparent and absolute kinetic constants were determined. The degradation of indigo dye was studied by anodic oxidation with BDD (AO-BDD) and photo-Fenton process (PF). This study shows a pseudo first order reaction kinetics for indigo degradation. The mineralization efficiency is about 97% and 63% of TOC abatement, respectively with OA-BDD and PF A comparative study of the mineralization efficiency of AO 7 dye was been investigated by different advanced oxidation processes (PF, AO-BDD, EF-Pt, EF-BDD). This study shows that PF process lead to reach more than 95% of TOC abatement after only 2 hours. Nevertheless, this process is the most expensive due to the use artificial UV light and the addition of reagents. The treatment of an industrial textile effluent by electro-Fenton process lead to a complete mineralization (94% of initial TOC were eliminated)

La synthèse de contrôleurs discrets (SCD) est appliquée pour générer automatiquement des contrôleurs matériels corrects par construction. Pour un système donné (un modèle à états), et une spécification de contrôle associée (une exigence comportementale), cette technique génère un contrôleur qui, composé avec le système initial, garantit la satisfaction de la spécification. La technique de SCD utilisée dans ce travail s’appuie sur les diagrammes de décision binaire (BDDs). Les contrôleurs générés doivent être compatibles avec les outils standards de synthèse matérielle de niveau RTL. Deux problèmes principaux ont été examinés: l’explosion combinatoire et la génération effective du contrôleur matériel. La maîtrise de l’explosion combinatoire s’appuie sur des approches de type «diviser pour régner », exploitant la modularité du système ou du contrôleur. La plupart des approches existantes ne traitent pas la communication explicite entre différents composants du système. Le mécanisme de synchronisation le plus couramment envisagé est le partage des événements d’entrée, faisant abstractiondes sorties. Nous proposons une technique de SCD incrémentale qui permet de traiter également les systèmes communicants. Une étape initiale d’abstraction modulaire est suivie par une séquence progressive de raffinements et de calculs de solutions approximatives de contrôle. La dernière étape de cette séquence engendre un contrôleur exact. Nous montrons que cette technique offre une efficacité améliorée en temps/mémoire par rapport à l’approche traditionnelle globale de la SCD. La génération du contrôleur matériel s’appuie sur un traitement spécifique du non-déterminisme de contrôle. Une architecture de contrôle à boucle partiellement fermée est proposée, afin de permettre une conception hiérarchique. Une technique automatique transformant une équation de contrôle en vecteur de fonctions de contrôle est proposée et illustrée. La SCD est ensuite appliquée et illustrée sur la correction de certaines erreurs de conception. L’efficacité des techniques proposées est illustrée sur un ensemble d’exemples de conception matérielle. / The Discrete Controller Synthesis (DCS) technique is used for automatic generation of correct-by-construction hardware controllers. For a given plant (a state-based model), and an associated control specification (a behavioral requirement), DCS generates a controller which, composed with the plant, guarantees the satisfaction of the specification. The DCS technique used relies on binary decision diagrams (BDDs). The controllers generated must be compliant with standard RTL hardware synthesis tools. Two main issues have been investigated: the combinational explosion, and the actual generation of the hardware controller. To address combinational explosion, common approaches follow the "divide and conquer" philosophy, producing modular control and/or decentralized control. Most of these approaches do not consider explicit communication between different components of a plant. Synchronization is mostly achieved by sharing of input events, and outputs are abstracted away. We propose an incremental DCS technique which also applies to communicating systems. An initial modular abstraction is followed by a sequence of progressive refinements and computations of approximate control solutions. The last step of this sequence computes an exact controller. This technique is shown to have an improved time/memory efficiency with respect to the traditional global DCS approach. The hardware controller generation addresses the control non-determinism problem in a specific way. A partially closed-loop control architecture is proposed, in order to preserve the applicability of hierarchical design. A systematic technique is proposed and illustrated, for transforming the automatically generated control equation into a vector of control functions. An application of the DCS technique to the correction of certain design errors in a real design is illustrated. To prove the efficiency of the incremental synthesis and controller implementation, a number of examples have been studied.

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / The present thesis demonstrates, for the first time, the possibility of using of the internal standard method in FIA or BIA systems with amperometric detection. The method allows to obtain accurate results in the presence of fluctuations in the system parameters (injected volume, dispensing rate, ionic strength and accidental insertion of air bubbles) and in the presence of contamination and/or gradual passivation of the working electrode surface. Methods for determination of diclofenac (DCF) using FIA with amperometric detection and simultaneous determination of DCF and codeine (CO) by BIA with amperometric detection have also been developed. The internal standard method was implemented in the flow injection analysis with multiple pulse amperometric detection (FIA-MPA) system by applying a sequence of potential pulses of the working electrode as a function of time. The analyte (+0.80 V/300ms) and internal standard (-0.05 V/400ms) were detected selectively, one at each potential pulse. Significant improvements were obtained in the accuracy of the system when the results before and after normalization (using the internal standard method), were compared. The following errors were calculated, respectively, before and after normalization of the results using the internal standard method. Change in flow rate from 3.0 to 1.0 ml min-1 (-57% e < 1%); volume injection from 300 to 100 &#956;L (-63% and 3%); ionic strength from 0.60 to 0.77 mol L-1 (-44 and 0,2%) and before and after the introduction of air bubbles into the system (-9,6% and 1,7%). A significant improvement was also obtained in the correlation coefficient of the calibration curve in the presence of problems of passivation or contamination of the working electrode. The correlation coefficient was calculated, respectively, as 0,975 and 0,998, before and after the normalization of the results by the IS method. The internal standard method was also applied to correct errors derived from the injection procedure (dispensing rate and injected volume) in batch injection analysis systems (BIA) with amperometric detection when disposable syringes were used. The results obtained before and after normalization of the results by the IS method were the following, respectively: repeatability test (RSD = 6.4 and 1.8%; n = 8), correlation coefficients (R=0.954 and 0.997) and errors obtained in analysis of synthetic samples (E = 9.4 ± 1.5 and 3.5 ± 0.7%; n = 8). The determination of DCF by FIA-MPA was implemented by applying two potential pulses to the BDD electrode using H2SO4 0.1 mol L-1 as supporting electrolyte: (i) + 1.2 V / 50 ms for oxidation and quantification of DCF, and (ii) 0.0 V / 50 ms for constant electrochemical cleaning of the electrode surface. The system showed good stability (RSD = 1.0%, n = 10) and high analytical frequency (135 injections h-1). The method showed a linear response between 5 and 50 &#956;mol L-1 and the detection and quantification limits were as 0.14 and 0.46 mmol L-1, respectively. The proposed method was applied to determine of DCF in pharmaceutical formulations and the obtained results were similar to those obtained by HPLC with a confidence level of 95%. The simultaneous determination of DCF and CO was performed using the following potential pulses: (i) +1.1 V / 50 ms: oxidation and quantification of DCF; (ii) +1.4 V / 50 ms: simultaneous oxidation of DCF and CO, (iii) 0.0 V / 200 ms: for constant electrochemical cleaning of the BDD electrode. The oxidation current from CO was obtained by the difference between currents detected at 1.4 and 1.1 V by using a correction factor. The system showed good stability (RSD = 0.9% and 1.1 for DCF and CO respectively, n = 10) and high analytical frequency (~ 300 injections h-1). The method showed a linear response between 10 and 50 &#956;mol L-1 for DCF and 7.1 and 35.7 &#956;mol L-1 for CO. The LQ and LD were calculated, respectively, at 1.1 and 3.7 &#956;mol L-1, for DCF and 1.0 and 3.3 mol L-1 for CO. The proposed method was applied for simultaneous determination of DCF and CO in pharmaceutical formulations and the obtained results were similar to those obtained by HPLC with a confidence level of 95%. Keywords: Multiple pulse amperometry, FIA, BIA, internal standard, simultaneous analysis, boron doped diamond (BDD), codeine, diclofenac. / Esta tese apresenta, pela primeira vez, a possibilidade de usar o método do padrão interno em sistemas FIA ou BIA com detecção amperométrica. O método permite a obtenção de resultados precisos na presença de flutuações em parâmetros dos sistemas (volume injetado, velocidade de injeção, força iônica e inserção acidental de bolhas de ar) e na presença de contaminação e/ou passivação gradual do eletrodo de trabalho. Métodos para determinação de diclofenaco (DCF) usando FIA com detecção amperométrica e simultânea de DCF e codeína (CO) por BIA com detecção amperométrica também foram desenvolvidos. O método do padrão interno foi implementado no sistema de análise por injeção em fluxo com detecção por amperometria de múltiplos pulsos (FIA-MPA) mediante a aplicação de uma sequência de pulsos de potenciais ao eletrodo de trabalho em função do tempo. O analito (+0,80 V/300ms) e o padrão interno (-0,05 V/400ms) foram detectados seletivamente, um em cada pulso de potencial. Melhoras significativas foram obtidas na precisão do método quando os resultados obtidos antes e após a normalização (usando o método do padrão interno) foram comparados. As seguintes variações foram calculadas, respectivamente, antes e após a normalização dos resultados usando o método do padrão interno. Variação na velocidade de vazão de 3,0 para 1,0 mL min-1 (-57% e < 1%); no volume de injeção de 300 para 100 &#956;L (-63% e 3%); força iônica de 0,60 para 0,77 mol L-1 (-44 e 0,2%) e antes e após a inserção de bolhas de ar no sistema (-9,6% e 1,7%). Uma melhora significativa também foi obtida no coeficiente de correlação da curva de calibração na presença de problemas de passivação ou contaminação do eletrodo de trabalho. O coeficiente de correlação foi calculado, respectivamente, em 0,975 e 0,998, antes e após a normalização dos resultados pelo método do PI. O método do padrão interno também foi aplicado para corrigir erros em sistemas de análise por injeção em batelada (BIA) com detecção amperométrica provenientes do procedimento de injeção (velocidade de injeção e volume injetado) quando seringas descartáveis foram utilizadas. Os resultados obtidos antes e após a normalização dos resultados pelo método do PI foram os seguintes, respectivamente: estudo de repetibilidade (DPR=6,4 e 1,8%; n = 8), coeficientes de correlação (R=0,954 e 0,997) e erros obtidos na análise de amostras sintéticas (9,4 ± 1,5% e 3,5 ± 0,7; n = 8). A determinação de DCF por FIA-MPA foi implementada através da aplicação de dois pulsos de potenciais ao eletrodo de BDD em meio de H2SO4 0,1 mol L-1 como eletrólito suporte: (i) +1,2 V / 50 ms para oxidação e quantificação do DCF e, (ii) 0,0 V / 50 ms para constante limpeza eletroquímica do eletrodo de trabalho. O sistema apresentou boa estabilidade (RSD = 1,0%; n=10) e elevada frequência analítica (135 injeções h-1). O método apresentou resposta linear entre 5 e 50 &#956;mol L-1 e os limites de detecção e quantificação foram calculados em 0,14 e 0,46 &#956;mol L-1, respectivamente. O método proposto foi aplicado na determinação de DCF em formulações farmacêuticas e os resultados obtidos foram similares ao obtidos por HPLC a um nível de confiança de 95%. A determinação simultânea de DCF e CO foi realizada usando os seguintes pulsos de potenciais: (i) +1,1 V / 50 ms: oxidação e quantificação de DCF; (ii) +1,4 V / 50 ms: para oxidação simultânea de DCF e CO; (iii) 0,0 V / 200 ms: para constante limpeza eletroquímica do eletrodo de BDD. A corrente de oxidação da CO foi obtida pela subtração entre as correntes detectadas em 1,4 e 1,1 V mediante uso de um fator de correção. O sistema apresentou boa estabilidade (RSD= 1,1 e 0,9% para DCF e CO, respectivamente, n=10) e elevada frequência analítica (~300 injeções h-1). O método apresentou resposta linear entre 10 e 50 &#956;mol L-1 para o DCF e entre 7,1 e 35,7 &#956;mol L-1 para CO. O LD e o LQ foram calculados, respectivamente, em 1,1 e 3,7 &#956;mol L-1, para DCF e 1,0 e 3,3 &#956;mol L-1 para CO. O método proposto foi aplicado na determinação simultânea de DCF e CO em formulações farmacêuticas e os resultados obtidos foram similares ao obtidos por HPLC a um nível de confiança de 95%. / Doutor em Química

Le contrôle de la qualité des calculs de structure suscite un intérêt croissant dans les processus de conception et de certification. Il repose sur l'utilisation d'estimateurs d'erreur, dont la mise en pratique entraîne un sur-coût numérique souvent prohibitif sur des calculs de grande taille. Le présent travail propose une nouvelle procédure permettant l'obtention d'une estimation garantie de l'erreur de discrétisation dans le cadre de problèmes linéaires élastiques résolus au moyen d'approches par décomposition de domaine. La méthode repose sur l'extension du concept d'erreur en relation de comportement au cadre des décompositions de domaine sans recouvrement, en s'appuyant sur la construction de champs admissibles aux interfaces. Son développement dans le cadre des approches FETI et BDD permet d'accéder à une mesure pertinente de l'erreur de discrétisation bien avant convergence du solveur lié à la décomposition de domaine. Une extension de la procédure d'estimation aux problèmes hétérogènes est également proposée. Le comportement de la méthode est illustré et discuté sur plusieurs exemples numériques en dimension 2. / The control of the quality of mechanical computations arouses a growing interest in both design and certification processes. It relies on error estimators the use of which leads to often prohibitive additional numerical costs on large computations. The present work puts forward a new procedure enabling to obtain a guaranteed estimation of discretization error in the setting of linear elastic problems solved by domain decomposition approaches. The method relies on the extension of the constitutive relation error concept to the framework of non-overlapping domain decomposition through the recovery of admissible interface fields. Its development within the framework of the FETI and BDD approaches allows to obtain a relevant estimation of discretization error well before the convergence of the solver linked to the domain decomposition. An extension of the estimation procedure to heterogeneous problems is also proposed. The behaviour of the method is illustrated and assessed on several numerical examples in 2 dimension.

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is a sum parameter that is frequently used in water analytics. Highly resolved and accurate DOC data are necessary, for instance, for water quality monitoring and for the evaluation of the efficiency of treatment processes. The conventional DOC determination methods consist of on-site sampling and subsequent analysis in a stationary device in a laboratory. However, especially in regions where no or only poorly equipped laboratories are available, this method bears the risk of getting erroneous results. For this reason, the objective of the present study was to set up a reliable and portable DOC analyzer for on-site analysis. The presented DOC system is equipped with an electrolysis-based decomposition cell with boron-doped diamond electrodes (BDD) that oxidizes the organic compounds to carbon dioxide. Within this study, the influence of different electrode materials and the composition of the applied electrolytes on the DOC decomposition in an undivided electrolytic cell were systematically investigated. Furthermore, some technical aspects of the portable prototype are discussed. After a detailed validation, the prototype was used in an ongoing monitoring program in Northern India. The limit of detection is 0.1 mg L−1 C with a relative standard deviation of 2.3% in a linear range up to 1000 mg L C−1. The key features of the portable DOC analyzer are: No need for ultra-pure gases, catalysts or burning technology, an analyzing time per sample below 5 min, and a reliable on-site DOC determination.

[ES] La presente Tesis Doctoral se centra en el estudio del comportamiento electroquímico de nuevos electrodos cerámicos basados en SnO2 dopado con Sb2O3. El estudio está orientado a la posterior aplicación de estos electrodos en procesos electroquímicos de oxidación avanzada. Inicialmente, se consideraron diferentes temperaturas de sinterización (entre 1050°C y 1250°C) y se observó que un aumento en la temperatura de sinterización favorecía la deposición del Sb2O3 en la superficie anódica, disminuyendo así la resistividad del electrodo. Posteriormente, se estudió el comportamiento electroquímico de estos nuevos electrodos obteniendo el potencial de descarga del oxígeno mediante la técnica de voltametría de barrido lineal. Los resultados obtenidos revelaron que el valor del potencial de descarga del oxígeno disminuye con el aumento de la temperatura de sinterización. Además, estos electrodos presentaron un comportamiento intermedio entre el ánodo de Pt y el ánodo de BDD. Este último electrodo se emplea habitualmente en los procesos electroquímicos de oxidación avanzada debido a su elevada capacidad para generar radicales hidroxilo, los cuales son capaces de oxidar los compuestos orgánicos a dióxido de carbono y agua. A continuación, se llevaron a cabo ensayos de oxidación electroquímica con estos electrodos cerámicos para seleccionar la temperatura de sinterización. Los resultados mostraron que con el electrodo cerámico sinterizado a 1250°C se alcanza una menor degradación del compuesto orgánico, mientras que los electrodos sinterizados a menores temperaturas presentan un comportamiento similar entre ellos. Por tanto, se seleccionó el electrodo cerámico sinterizado a 1200°C ya que presenta una baja resistividad y un buen comportamiento electroquímico para ser utilizado como ánodo en los procesos electroquímicos de oxidación avanzada. Seguidamente se analizó la vida útil de estos electrodos cerámicos, y se comprobó que la matriz cerámica incrementa en gran medida la estabilidad a la polarización anódica de los electrodos basados en SnO2. Posteriormente, se llevaron a cabo procesos de electro-oxidación en modo galvanostático de distintos contaminantes difíciles de eliminar por las técnicas convencionales utilizando como ánodo los nuevos electrodos cerámicos y el electrodo de BDD, para así poder comparar los resultados obtenidos. Se observó que, aunque con los electrodos cerámicos se consigue degradar el 100% de los distintos contaminantes, el electrodo de BDD es el más eficiente ya que genera mayor cantidad de especies oxidantes activas en su superficie. Para un mismo electrodo, se observó que un aumento en la densidad de corriente aplicada mejora la velocidad de degradación y mineralización de cada contaminante, mientras que la eficiencia eléctrica disminuye. Por otro lado, se estudió el efecto de la presencia de una membrana de intercambio catiónico entre ánodo y cátodo. Los resultados mostraron que el uso de la membrana beneficia la degradación y la mineralización del contaminante, ya que mejora la cinética de reacción anódica y evita la reducción de las especies oxidantes electrogeneradas. A continuación, se analizó la influencia de la concentración del Na2SO4 como electrolito soporte. En este estudio se observó que un aumento en la concentración del Na2SO4 mejora la mineralización del contaminante para el electrodo de BDD y, por el contrario, empeora para el electrodo cerámico. Esto se debe a la capacidad de cada electrodo para oxidar los sulfatos a persulfatos. Por último, se llevaron a cabo ensayos de ecotoxicidad de las muestras tratadas, y se demostró que, en presencia de membrana, a mayor densidad de corriente y con el electrodo de BDD la toxicidad de la muestra es mayor debido a la mayor presencia en disolución de iones persulfato. Por tanto, con el electrodo cerámico, además de alcanzar un elevado grado de degradación del contamina / [CAT] La present Tesi Doctoral es centra en l'estudi del comportament electroquímic de nous elèctrodes ceràmics basats en SnO2 dopat amb Sb2O3. L'estudi està orientat a la posterior aplicació d'aquests elèctrodes en processos electroquímics d'oxidació avançada. Inicialment, es van considerar diferents temperatures de sinterització (entre 1050°C i 1250°C) i es va observar que un augment en la temperatura de sinterització afavoria la deposició de Sb2O3 en la superfície anòdica, disminuint així la resistivitat de l'elèctrode. Posteriorment, es va estudiar el comportament electroquímic d'aquests nous elèctrodes obtenint el potencial de descàrrega de l'oxigen mitjançant la tècnica de voltametria de passada lineal. Els resultats obtinguts van revelar que el valor del potencial de descàrrega de l'oxigen disminueix amb l'augment de la temperatura de sinterització. A més, aquests elèctrodes ceràmics van presentar un comportament intermedi entre l'ànode de Pt y l'ànode de BDD. Aquest últim elèctrode s'utilitza habitualment en els processos electroquímics d'oxidació avançada a causa de la seua elevada capacitat per a generar radicals hidroxil, els quals són capaços d'oxidar els compostos orgànics a diòxid de carboni i aigua. A continuació, es van dur a terme assajos d'oxidació electroquímica amb aquests elèctrodes ceràmics per a seleccionar la temperatura de sinterització. Els resultats van mostrar que amb l'elèctrode ceràmic sinteritzat a 1250°C s'aconsegueix una menor degradació del compost orgànic, mentre que els elèctrodes sinteritzats a menors temperatures presenten un comportament similar entre ells. Per tant, es va seleccionar l'elèctrode ceràmic sinteritzat a 1200 °C ja que presenta una baixa resistivitat i un bon comportament electroquímic per a ser utilitzat com a ànode en els processos electroquímics d'oxidació avançada. Seguidament, es va analitzar la vida útil d'aquests elèctrodes ceràmics, i es va comprovar que la matriu ceràmica incrementa en gran mesura l'estabilitat a la polarització anòdica dels elèctrodes basats en SnO2. Posteriorment es van dur a terme processos d'electro-oxidació en mode galvanostàtic de diferents contaminants difícils d'eliminar per les tècniques convencionals utilitzant com a ànode els nous elèctrodes ceràmics i l'elèctrode de BDD, per a així poder comparar els resultats obtinguts. Es va observar que, encara que amb els elèctrodes ceràmics s'aconsegueix degradar el 100% dels diferents contaminants, l'elèctrode de BDD és el més eficient ja que genera una major quantitat d'espècies oxidants actives en la seua superfície. Per a un mateix elèctrode, es va observar que un augment en la densitat de corrent aplicada millora la velocitat de degradació i mineralització de cada contaminant, mentre que l'eficiència elèctrica disminueix. D'altra banda, es va estudiar l'efecte de la presència d'una membrana d'intercanvi catiònic entre ànode i càtode. Els resultats van mostrar que l'ús de la membrana beneficia la degradació i la mineralització del contaminant, ja que millora la cinètica de reacció anòdica i evita la reducció de les espècies oxidants electrogenerades. A continuació, es va analitzar la influència de la concentració del Na2SO4 com a electròlit suport. En aquest estudi es va observar que un augment en la concentració del Na2SO4 millora la mineralització del contaminant per a l'elèctrode de BDD i, per contra, empitjora per a l'elèctrode ceràmic. Això es deu a la capacitat de cada elèctrode per a oxidar els sulfats a persulfats. Finalment, es van dur a terme assajos d'ecotoxicitat de les mostres tractades, i es va demostrar que, en presència de membrana, a major densitat de corrent i amb l'elèctrode de BDD la toxicitat de la mostra és major a causa de la major presència en dissolució d'ions persulfat. Per tant, amb l'elèctrode ceràmic, a més d'aconseguir un elevat grau de degradació del con / [EN] The present Doctoral Thesis focuses on the study of the electrochemical behaviour of new ceramic electrodes based on SnO2 doped with Sb2O3. The study is oriented at the subsequent application of these electrodes in electrochemical advanced oxidation processes. Initially, different sintering temperatures were considered (between 1050°C and 1250°C) and it was observed that an increase in the sintering temperature favoured the deposition of Sb2O3 on the anodic surface, thus decreasing the resistivity of the electrode. Later, the electrochemical behaviour of these new electrodes was studied by means of the oxygen discharge potential using the linear sweep voltammetry technique. The results obtained revealed that the value of the oxygen discharge potential decreases with increasing the sintering temperature. Furthermore, these electrodes showed an intermediate behaviour between the Pt anode and the BDD one. This last electrode is commonly used in advanced electrochemical oxidation processes due to its high capacity to generate hydroxyl radicals, which are capable of oxidizing the organic compounds to carbon dioxide and water. Then, electrochemical oxidation tests were carried out with these ceramic electrodes to select the sintering temperature. The results showed that with the ceramic electrode sintered at 1250°C, a lower degradation and mineralization of the organic compound is achieved, while the electrodes sintered at lower temperatures showed a similar behaviour. Therefore, the ceramic electrode sintered at 1200°C was selected as it presents low resistivity good electrochemical behaviour to be used as anode in electrochemical advanced oxidation processes. Next, the service life of these ceramic electrodes was analyzed, and it was found that the ceramic matrix greatly increases the anodic polarization stability of the electrodes based on SnO2. Subsequently, electro-oxidation processes were carried out in galvanostatic mode for different contaminants that are difficult to remove by conventional techniques, using the new ceramic electrodes and the BDD electrode as anodes, in order to compare the results obtained. It was observed that ceramic electrodes can be used as anodes for electrochemical oxidation, since for high current densities it is possible to degrade a 100% of the different contaminants. However, the BDD electrode is the most efficient one since it generates more active oxidant species on its surface. For a given electrode, an increase in the current density improves the degradation and mineralization of each contaminant, while the electrical efficiency decreases. On the other hand, the effect of the presence of a cation-exchange membrane between anode and cathode was studied. The results showed that its use benefits the degradation and mineralization of the contaminants, since it improves the kinetics of the anodic reaction and avoids the reduction of the electrogenated oxidant species. Next, the influence of the concentration of Na2SO4 as supporting electrolyte was analyzed. In this study it was observed that an increase in the Na2SO4 concentration improves the mineralization of the contaminant for the BDD electrode and, on the contrary, worsens for the ceramic electrode. This is due to the ability of each electrode to oxidize sulfates to persulfates. Finally, ecotoxicity tests on the treated samples were carried out, and it was shown that, in the presence of the membrane, at higher current density and with the BDD electrode, the toxicity of the sample is greater due to the higher presence of persulfate ions. Therefore, with the ceramic electrode, in addition to achieving a high degree of contaminant degradation, the treated samples are less toxic than the samples treated with the BDD electrode. / Agradezco al Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad por la financiación recibida mediante los proyectos CTQ2015-65202-C2-1-R y RTI2018-101341-B-C21, y a la cofinanciación con los fondos FEDER, que han permitido llevar a cabo la investigación en la Universitat Politècnica de València para la realización de la presente Tesis. También agradecer a Sergio Mestre Beltrán por proporcionarnos los nuevos electrodos cerámicos en los que se ha basado este trabajo. / Mora Gómez, J. (2020). Eliminación de contaminantes orgánicos emergentes mediante procesos electroquímicos de oxidación avanzada [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/158751 / TESIS

Une étude détaillée a été effectuée sur l'utilisation de la technique électro-Fenton pour l'oxydation de quelques polluants organiques persistants (POP) dans le but du traitement des eaux usées. Cette technique génère, in situ et de manière électrocatalytique, les radicaux hydroxyles (OH) afin de les utiliser pour oxyder la polluants organiques. Le travail de thèse est constitué en trois parts. Dans la première partie, l'élimination de l'eau des colorants synthétiques et pesticides choisis comme polluants modèles a été effectuée en utilisant une cathode en feutre de carbone. Les cinétiques d'oxydation des colorants synthétiques (Acide Orange 7 et Bleu Basique 3) et des pesticides (picloram, prophame, azinphos-méthyl et clopyralid) ont été déterminées. La cinétique de minéralisation des solutions aqueuses des polluants organiques en question a été suivie par des analyses de carbone organique totale (COT) et demande chimique en oxygène (DCO). Une minéralisation quasi-totale a été obtenue dans tous les cas. L'identification et la quantification des sousproduits d'oxydation des colorants synthétiques et pesticides ont été effectuées par les techniques d'analyse suivantes: Chromatographie liquide à haute performance (CLHP), chromatographie en phasegazeuse-spectrométrie de masse (GC/MS), chromatographie liquide à haute performances-péctrométrie de masse (HPLC/MS) et chromatographie ionique. Ces analyses systématique ont mis en évidence que les polluants organiques initiaux ont sont convertis en trois formes d'intermédiaires réactionnels; intermédiaires organiques, acides carboxyliques à courte chaîne et ions inorganiques. Basé sur l'identification ces des intermédiaires réactionnels, une schéma de minéralisation plausible a été proposé pour chaque colorant et pesticide étudié. Dans la deuxième partie de l'étude, la capacité de production de peroxyde d'hydrogène (H2O2) de la cathode en éponge de carbone comme matériau original de cathode pour la technique électro-Fenton a été étudiée pour la première fois. Les résultats obtenus ont indiqué que le l'éponge de carbone possède une capacité de la production d'H2O2 trois fois plus élevée par rapport à la cathode classique (feutre de carbone). La troisième et dernière partie de cette thèse a été consacrée à l'étude de l'efficacité et l'utilisation en électro-Fenton d'une anode de nouvelle génération, le diamant dopé au bore (BDD pour "Boron Doped Diamond"). Tout d'abord, l'efficacité d'oxydation et la capacité de minéralisation de l'anode BDD ont été examinées sur l'herbicide propham dans les conditions d'oxydation anodique. Ensuite, la combinaison de cathode en feutre de carbone et l'anode BDD dans la technique électro-Fenton a été examinée. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que cette combinaison conduit aux résultats significativement meilleurs que le système classique feutre de carbone - Pt. L'utilisation de l'anode BDD dans l'électro-Fenton améliore considérablement la cinétique d'oxydation et l'efficacité de minéralisation des polluants organiques et en particulier des acides carboxyliques tels que les acides oxalique et oxamique qui résistent à la minéralisation dans le cas de l'anode Pt.

Este trabalho investigou a oxidação eletroquímica do ácido tânico em eletrodos do tipo Ânodo Dimensionalmente Estáveis (ADE) a base de SnO2 e IrO2 e eletrodos de Diamante Dopado com Boro (BDD). As eletrólises foram feitas em modo galvanostático em função de parâmetros como densidade de corrente e concentração de cloreto. A oxidação eletroquímica do ácido tânico foi capaz de promover a diminuição da concentração de fenóis totais, Carbono Orgânico Total (COT) e Demanda Química de oxigênio (DQO). Para os ADE os melhores resultados de remoção de Carbono Orgânico Total (COT) foram nas condições em que se utilizou 300 mg L-1 de cloreto e densidade de corrente de 25 mA cm-2. No entanto houve a formação de compostos organoclorados que não foram degradados com maiores tempo de reação. Para os eletrodos de BDD, obteve-se a remoção de aproximadamente 98% de COT após 10 horas de reação à 75 mA cm-2, na ausência de cloreto. Maiores remoções de COT são obtidas com o aumento da densidade de corrente. Eletrólises na presença de cloreto removeram quase 100% do COT em tempos menores de reação. Análises de compostos organohalogenados (AOX) mostraram que não houve a formação de compostos organoclorados. Menores densidades de corrente apresentaram maiores Eficiência de Corrente (EC) e menor Consumo de Energia (CE). As eletrólises na presença de cloro apresentaram melhores resultados de EC que na ausência do mesmo. A oxidação fotoeletroquímia do ácido tânico em eletrodos do tipo ADE de composição nominal Ti/ Sn0,7 Ir0,3 O2 também foi investigada nesse trabalho. O tratamento fotoeletroquímico foi realizado utilizando uma lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio de alta pressão de 125 W como fonte de irradiação. A variação da corrente não mostrou diferença significativa na oxidação do ácido tânico. A variação da concentração de cloreto no eletrólito suporte influenciou de forma acentuada a oxidação do ácido tânico. O tratamento fotoeletroquímico se mostrou mais eficiente na remoção de COT que os tratamentos eletroquímico e fotoquímico. No tratamento fotoeletroquímico ocorreu a formação de AOX no início da reação, no entanto com o passar do tempo esses compostos foram degradados. / This study investigated the electrochemical oxidation of tannic acid on electrodes of the Dimensionally Stable Anode (DSA) type based on SnO2 and IrO2 as well as on boron doped diamond (BDD) electrodes. The electrolyses were performed in the galvanostatic mode, as a function of such parameters as current density and chloride concentration. The electrochemical oxidation of tannic acid was able to promote the reduction of the concentration of total phenolics, total organic carbon (TOC), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). For the DSA the best results of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) removal were achieved at 300 ppm chloride and current density of 25 mA cm-2. However, organochlorine compounds were formed and were not degraded with increased reaction times. For the BDD electrodes, the removal of approximately 98% TOC was obtained after 10 hours of reaction at 75 mA cm-2, in the absence of chloride. Major TOC removals were obtained with increasing current density. Electrolyses in the presence of chloride removed almost 100% TOC in shorter reaction times. Analysis of organohalogen compounds (AOX) showed no formation of organochlorine compounds. Lower current densities led to higher current efficiency (CE) and lower Energy Consumption (EC). The electrolyses in the presence of chlorine produced better CE results than those performed in the absence of chlorine. The photoelectrochemical oxidation of tannic acid in ADE-type electrodes of nominal composition Ti / Sn0.9 Ir0.3 O2 was also investigated in this work. The photoelectrochemical treatment was performed using a high pressure mercury vapor lamp 125 W as the source of irradiation. The variation in current revealed no significant difference in the oxidation of tannic acid. The variation in chloride concentration in the electrolyte markedly influenced the oxidation of tannic acid. The photoelectrochemical treatment was more efficient for TOC removal than the electrochemical and photochemical treatments. Formation of AOX occurred at the beginning of the photoelectrochemical treatment, but over time these compounds were degraded.