Many of today’s waterworks were built in the 1950s to 1970s and today they showsigns of damage and great wear on the concrete structures of the pools. There arelarge needs of renovation of the existing pools, but also an increasing need for newfacilities since cities are growing. This thesis aims to investigate the occurrence andcause of damages that can occur on concrete pools in waterworks and the demandson the tightness and durability of the structure. The target of the thesis is tofind out which factors are behind the requirements and how these can be taken inconsideration when designing new waterworks. The thesis has resulted in a guideline aimed at structural engineers, who lackexperience in designing waterproof structures, and intends to complement thedevelopment of design requirements. The use of the guideline is illustrated at the endthrough a simplified design example. The thesis has also shown that there are no general requirements for tightness anddurability for pool structures in waterworks, nevertheless there are many factors thatneeds to be considered, hence the requirements are project-specific.

Impacts from climate change are affecting all life on earth and the building sector is a great contributor of greenhouse gases. A transformation of the building sector is one part of the solution to limit impacts from human-driven climate change. In Sweden approximately one fifth of all emissions of carbon dioxide comes from the building sector. In this report a comparison of emissions of greenhouse gases and storage of carbon dioxide has been done for two different building systems of a house with three floors and 12 apartments. In the result it appears that emissions from the wooden building is near 0 carbon dioxide equivalent (9 000 kg CDE) when the storage of carbon dioxide in wooden products are considered. The value for the concrete building is almost 20 times higher, 164 000 kilogram CDE. Comparisons of each construction like exterior walls, interior walls and floors show that emissions of greenhouse gases from the concrete building are bigger for each part. Also when the captured carbon dioxide in wooden products is not considered. Floors in both buildings stand for most of the greenhouse gas emissions. For all wooden products the captured carbon is about ten times higher than the emissions of CDE in productions of the products. These values could be interpreted that wooden buildings have potential to work as efficient carbon storage. / Klimatfrågan är en av vår tids ödesfrågor. Majoriteten av forskarkåren är enig om att mänskligheten måste minimera utsläpp av växthusgaser för att inte riskera kraftiga förändringar i klimat och ekosystem som på sikt utgör ett hot mot hela vår civilisation. En omställning av byggbranschen är nödvändig som en del av lösningen. Sveriges byggsektor står för cirka en femtedel av landets totala koldioxidutsläpp. 85 procent av alla nyproducerade lägenheter i Sverige byggs med betongstomme medan motsvarande siffra för trästomme är 13 procent. I rapporten har två alternativ av stommar analyserats ur ett klimatperspektiv för ett lägenhetshus med 12 lägenheter. Där ena stommen är projekterad i trä och den andra i betong. De klimatperspektiv som beaktas är utsläpp av växthusgaser i produktion av varje enskilt material och det bundna kolet i alla träprodukter. Den enhet som använts för utsläpp är koldioxidekvivalenter (CO2e) som är en sammanvägning av främst växthusgaserna koldioxid, metan och kväveoxid. Det bundna kolet i träprodukter är inräknat som koldioxidupptag (CO2u). Utsläpp av CO2e och upptag av CO2u har beaktats för varje material i respektive stomme. En förenklad livscykelanalys har använts där de utsläpp som genereras från utvinning av råmaterial till färdig produkt är medräknade. Det innefattar steg A1-A3 i en livscykelanalys. Dessa tre produktionssteg i livscykelanalysen bidrar till klart störst utsläpp i en byggprocess lik den som analyerats. Genom projektering av en och samma byggnad med två olika stommar har mängden byggmaterial för respektive stomme räknats fram med hjälp av ritningar, materiallistor och kalkylprogram. Egenskaperna för de olika stommarna har eftersträvas att matcha varandra gällande ljudklasser, brandskydd, hållfasthet och värmeisoleringsförmåga. Fukt och andra byggtekniska egenskaper har lämnats utanför. Resultatet visar att nettoutsläppen för byggnaden med trästommen är nära 0 (9 ton CO2e). För betongstommen är klimatpåverkan nästan 20 gånger högre, 164 ton CO2e. Om inte upptaget kol i träprodukter tas med blir utsläppen från trästommen cirka 171 ton CO2e och för betongstommen hamnar utsläppen på cirka 212 ton CO2e. Jämförelser har utförts på varje byggnadsdel och resultatet visar att betongstommens koldioxidpåverkan är större i alla byggnadsdelar, även då inte koldioxidupptaget beaktas, men skillnaden i bjälklagen är små. Bjälklagen som är den byggnadsdel i respektive stomme som står för störst utsläpp av koldioxidekvivalenter med 34 procent i betongbyggnaden samt 40 procent i träbyggnaden av de totala utsläppen från vardera stomme. Betongen står för klart högst klimatpåverkan av materialen i betongstommen med cirka 129 ton CO2e. I trästommen står isoleringen i form av mineral och stenull samt cellplast för störst klimatpåverkan med utsläpp av 93 ton CO2e. Samtliga resultat presenteras utförligt i diagram och tabeller. Ingen av stommarna är projekterade med mål för en liten klimatpåverkan. Förbättringspotential hos vardera konstruktion är därmed stor. Ytterväggarna i betongstommen skulle med fördel vara byggda av lättbetong för att nämna en koldioxidbesparande åtgärd. Isolering med mineralull och stenull står för cirka 50 % av utsläppen i träbyggnaden, hade träfiberisolering används skulle den posten av CO e minskat samtidigt som koldioxidupptaget ökat. För samtliga träprodukter överstiger det bundna kolet utsläppen av koldioxid som skapas vid produktionen av varan. Upptaget av koldioxid är cirka 1,6 kg per kilo material medan träprodukter i framställning släpper ut mellan 0,1-0,2 kg per kilo material. Detta visar potentialen hos träbyggnader ur ett klimatperspektiv om virket kommer från ett hållbart skogsbruk där återplantering är ett krav och den totala virkesvolymen bibehålls, vilket är fallet i Sverige. Den vetskapen visar att trähus kan fungera som effektiv koldioxidlagring och att sveriges husbyggnadsbransch har möjlighet att vara klimatneutral vid mer byggande i trä.

Det finns många olika varianter av uppbyggnader för ett stomsystem. Skoglunds Bygg har genom åren använt sig av många olika stomsystem och de vill nu ha dessa utvärderade och jämförda för att få ett resultat på vad som varit de mest lönsamma och tidseffektiva konstruktionerna. Genom att använda ett referenshus är målsättningen att studera och jämföra olika stomsystem som Skoglunds Bygg har använt sig av i tidigare projekt, men även att jämföra några nya lösningar som de är intresserade av. Som avslutning av denna jämförelse vill Skoglunds Bygg få ut en ”Skoglunds modell”, som består av de mest lönsamma och tidseffektiva konstruktionslösningarna.    För att kunna genomföra denna jämförelse genomfördes först en litteraturstudie för att få en djupare förståelse för de olika konstruktionerna och datorprogrammet som ska användas. Därefter redovisade Skoglunds Bygg vilka konstruktioner de ville ha jämförda. När detta var gjort användes datorprogrammet BidCon för att jämföra dessa konstruktioner med hänsyn till tidsåtgång och kostnader. Detta resulterade slutligen i en ”Skoglunds modell”.   Studien resulterade i att träregelstomme med en fasad av trä var den billigaste konstruktionen medans den snabbaste konstruktionen var utfackningsväggar i trä.  För bärande lägenhetsavskiljande väggar var resultatet att skalväggen var den billigaste och snabbaste konstruktionen.  För bjälklag var resultatet att betongbjälklaget DalaDekk var den billigaste konstruktionen medans hålbjälklaget i betong var den snabbaste konstruktionen att producera.    ”Skoglundsmodellen” består av följande konstruktioner:    Ytterväggar – Träregelstommme med en fasad av trä Lägenhetsavskiljande bärande väggar – Skalväggar i betong Bjälklag – DalaDekk betongelement / There are many different variants of structures for a framework system. Skoglunds Bygg has used many different frame systems over the years and they now want these evaluated and compared to get a result on what has been the most profitable and time-efficient designs. By using a reference house, the goal is to study and compare different frame systems that Skoglunds Bygg has used in previous projects, but also to compare some new solutions that they are interested in. As a conclusion to this comparison, Skoglunds Bygg wants to get a "Skoglund model", which consists of the most profitable and time-efficient design solutions.   To be able to carry out this comparison, a literature study was first carried out in order to gain a deeper understanding of the various designs and the computer program to be used. Then Skoglunds Bygg reported which designs they wanted to compare. When this was done, the computer program BidCon was used to compare these constructions with regard to time and costs. This eventually resulted in a "Skoglund model".   The result shows that the wooden timber frame with a wooden facade are the cheapest construction, while the fastest construction is curtain walls with wood façade. For load-bearing partition walls, the result shows that the concrete shell wall is the cheapest and fastest alternative in this particular study. For the framing of joists floor, the result shows that the concrete flooring DalaDekk is the cheapest alternative, while the hollow core flooring in concrete is the fastest construction to produce.    “The Skoglundsmodel” consists of the following: Load-bearing external walls - Curtain walls with a wood facade Load-bearing partition walls - Concrete shell walls Floor layers – Flat concrete base

<p>In this investigation strength and structural behaviour of prestressed concrete is studied with one full scale test of one flat slab, 16000 mm x 19000 mm, and three slabs on ground each 4000 mm x 4000 mm with thickness 150 mm. The flat slab was constructed and tested in Aalesund. This slab has nine circular columns as support, each with diameter 450 mm. Thickness of this test slab was 230 mm and there were two spans in each direction, 2 x 9000 mm in x-direction and 2 x 7500 mm in y-direction from centre to centre column. The slab was reinforced with twenty tendons in the middle column strip in y-direction and eight tendons in both outer column strips. In x-direction tendons were distributed with 340 mm distance. There were also ordinary reinforcement bars in the slab. Strain gauges were welded to this reinforcement, which together with the deflection measurements gives a good indication of deformation and strains in the structure.</p><p>At a live load of 6.5 kN/m² shear failure around the central column occurred: The shear capacity calculated after NS 3473 and EuroCode2 was passed with 58 and 69 %, respectively. Time dependent and non-linear FE analyses were performed with the program system DIANA. Although calculated and measured results partly agree well, the test show that this type of structure is complicated to analyse by non-linear FEM.</p><p>Prestressed slabs on ground have no tradition in Norway. In this test one reinforced and two prestressed slabs on ground were tested and compared to give a basis for a better solution for slabs on ground. This test was done in the laboratory at Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. The first slab is reinforced with 8 mm bars in both directions distributed at a distance of 150 mm in top and bottom. Slab two and three are prestressed with 100 mm² tendons located in the middle of slab thickness, and distributed at a distance of 630 mm in slab two and 930 mm in slab three. Strain gauges were glued to the reinforcement in slab one and at top and bottom surface of all three slabs. In slab two and three there were four load cells on the tendons.</p><p>Each slab were loaded with three different load cases, in the centre of slab, at the edge and finally in the corner. This test shows that stiffness of sub-base is one of the most important parameters when calculating slabs on ground. Deflection and crack load level depends of this parameter. Since the finish of slabs on ground is important, it can be more interesting to find the load level when cracks start, than deflection for the slab. It is shown in this test that crack load level was higher in prestressed slabs than in reinforced slab. There was no crack in the top surface with load in the centre, but strain gauges in the bottom surface indicate that crack starts at a load of 28 kN in the reinforced slab, and 45 kN in the prestressed slabs. Load at the edge give a crack load of 30 kN in reinforced slab, 45 kN and 60 kN in prestressed slabs. The last load case gives crack load of 30 kN in reinforced slab, 107 kN and 75 kN in prestressed slabs. As for the flat slab, FE analyses were performed for all of the three slabs on ground, and analyses shows that a good understanding of parameters like stiffness of sub-base and tension softening model, is needed for correct result of the analyses.</p>

<p>The thesis deals with experimental and numerical modelling to characterize early age tensile and compressive creep and its associated stress relaxation - which are very important properties in stress simulation of early age concrete. For this purpose a comprehensive work was carried out involving construction of a new tensile creep test equipment and development of test procedures to generate basic experimental data.</p><p>The experimental program is subdivided into four series. Each of the series involves one varying parameter, which is relevant to the time-dependent behaviour of early age HPC. Most of the tests are repeated to check the reproducibility of the test results. The reproducibility of the test results for the BASE concretes confirmed that the experimental setup is reliable, and that it can be used to determine tensile creep of concrete at early ages.</p><p>An extensive test program has been performed on HPC, with w/b = 0.40. The primary parameters studied were concrete ages at loading (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 days), stress/strength levels (20-80%), and temperature levels (20, 34, 40, 57 and 60 oC) in addition to the effect of silica fume (0-15%) on tensile creep. The testing apparatus was new and significant efforts were devoted to develop reliable procedures in terms of accuracy and reproducibility. In parallel, compressive creep tests were conducted on a separate testing apparatus, and the results are compared to tensile creep behaviour.</p><p>It was found that the instantaneous deformation under tension is smaller than under compression, and that the corresponding creep curves also are different. Creep in tension is found to be lower initially, but an almost linear rate is soon established which is much higher than in compression. The consequence is greater creep magnitude and thus greater creep coefficient in tension than in compression. The tests on non-linearity showed that the proportionality limit between stress and sealed tensile creep strain is about 60% of the strength. Creep tests under isothermal temperatures showed that, as for compressive creep, the sealed tensile creep accelerates for temperatures higher than 20 oC. In addition, the maturity principle describes this effect reasonably well, for the tested loading ages of about 3 days.</p><p>The relatively large amount of experimental data, available in this study, has been used to investigate mathematical models. Comprehensive test results from the TSTM apparatus are analyzed with respect to creep and relaxation, where the effect of temperature on creep and relaxation is emphasized. Simulations of self-induced stresses are performed using the creep model denoted the Double Power Law (DPL). As solution method, the theory of linear viscoelasticity with aging is used. The model (M-DPL) is modified to take into account the effect of irrecoverable creep.</p><p>For increasing temperatures during the hardening phase, the transient creep, which takes place during heating is taken into account by an additional creep term. Its contribution to stress relaxation was found to be up to 10%. This transient creep term is considered to be irrecoverable during the subsequent temperature decrease. The modified model captures the various characteristics of sealed creep and describes the tensile behaviour at early ages more accurately than the original Double Power Law.</p><p>The effect of relaxation is found to be relatively large and significant in development of selfinduced stresses. Under isothermal temperature of 20 oC, the relaxation increases to about 40% of the fictive elastic stresses after 3 days and remains about constant after that. On the other hand, presentation of relaxation under realistic temperature histories is much more complicated, because the stresses change from compression to tension. This might also lead to increased tensile stresses because compressive creep reduces compressive stresses, but increases the subsequent tensile stresses. Underestimation of creep in this early period will lead to underestimation of the cracking risk.</p><p>Creep development at very early ages has an important effect in determination of the creep model parameters. After an evaluation of the test results using six loading ages (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 days) it was concluded that an optimal test program should include at least 3 loading ages, in which the loading ages 1 and 2 must be included.</p><p>Furthermore, the test results indicate that partial replacement of cement with silica fume (5-15%) increases the sealed tensile creep. However, the reference concrete without silica fume dose not fit to this systematic pattern.</p>

<p>Från och med den 1 januari 2011 kommer Sverige att gå över från Boverkets konstruktionsregler (BKR) till de, för den europeiska gemenskapen, gemensamma beräkningsreglerna Eurokoderna. De kommer att vara obligatoriska för alla bärande konstruktioner. Övergången kommer att innebära stora förändringar främst i konstruktörens vardag men man kommer även att se spår av den inom bland annat prefab-industrin. Rapportens tyngdpunkt ligger i att se på de faktorer som direkt berör betongelementindustrin. För att bättre förstå vilka förändringar övergången kommer att medföra för dels betongkonstruktören men också de konkreta förändringarna vad gäller armeringsmängd, sprickbreddsberäkningar och förankringslängder har dels ett ingående studium av de nya normerna samt en beräkningsjämförelse normerna emellan utförts.</p><p>Normerna skiljer sig åt, men det är inte någon revolutionerande förändring då de båda bygger på samma dimensioneringsmetod. Den största skillnaden är att man, enligt Eurokoderna, lägger hela säkerheten på lastsidan.</p><p>Huruvida armeringsmängden kommer, som man befarar, att öka är svårt att säga, även om mycket tyder på det. Dock skall påpekas att Eurokoderna ger en möjlighet att utföra vissa bärverk oarmerade eller lätt armerade.</p><p>Sprickbreddskraven är de samma men dimensioneringsgången är något annorlunda. Vidare ges utrymme för att kontrollera huruvida kravet uppfylls utan att utföra beräkningar.</p><p>Dimensionerandet av förankringslängder är mycket likt, normerna emellan. Men även här finns det möjlighet för konstruktören utföra dimensioneringen praktiskt taget utan beräkningar.</p>

<p>Arbetet syftar till att genom en litteraturstudie samt ett antal kortare intervjuer som skickas ut via e-post göra en grundläggande undersökning av CFRP (Carbon fibre reinforced polymers) därtill hur användningen av förstärkningsmetoderna ser ut idag. Rapporten skall ta upp hur projektörer bör arbeta när de träffar på produkter som är nya på marknaden.</p><p>Att förstärka betongkonstruktioner med kolfiberförstärkning har blivit allt mer vanligt under de senaste åren. Även stålband eller stålbalkar används för att förstärka bjälklag och liknande konstruktionselement. Anledningen till att en byggnad eller annan typ av konstruktion måste förstärkas kan bero på ett flertal olika saker, bland annat om byggnadens användningsområde ändras.</p><p>Kolfiberförstärkning är i jämförelse med stål mycket starkt i förhållande till sin vikt. Tunna förstärkningar gör stor skillnad. Därför tar förstärkningen väldigt liten plats. Kompositen består av kolfiber som fästs mot betongens yta med härdplasten epoxi. Det är väldigt viktigt att både epoxin samt kolfibern behandlas på rätt sätt för att förstärkningen skall bli korrekt utförd. Kolfiberförstärkningen korroderar inte samt är mycket beständig. Dock kan endast dragkrafter tas upp, fibrerna bucklas om de utsätts för tryckkrafter. Kolfiberförstärkning kan användas för att ta upp dragspänningar i balkar orsakade av böjning eller skjuvspänningar orsakade av tvärkrafter. Pelare kan förstärkas mot spänningar orsakade av normalkrafter eller spänningar som uppkommer av böjning. Dimensioneringen samt monteringen av förstärkningen måste göras noggrant för att förstärkningen skall fungera tillfredställande. Faktorer som fukt och smuts på arbetsplatsen måste kontrolleras för att kompositen skall fungera optimalt.<strong></strong></p><p>I dagsläget finns ingen standardisering för produkterna i Sverige. Avsaknaden av en standard gör att det blir svårt att jämföra forskningsreslutat med varandra eftersom testen ställs upp av olika forskningsgrupper efter deras egna kriterier. Det saknas även en internationell standard för hur tester skall ställas upp. Det kan finnas flera anledningar till varför det fortfarande inte finns någon standard för kolfiberförstärkningar. Det kan bland annat bero på att metoderna fortfarande är ganska nya eller att det ingen tagit initiativ till att utforma en standard ännu.</p><p>Projektörer tillsammans med entreprenörer som handskas med materialet måste vara utbildade eftersom dimensioneringen av förstärkningen är ganska komplicerad samt att förhållandena på arbetsplatsen måste vara goda. Slutligen så måste förstärkningen vara korrekt utförd för att uppfylla Lag(1994:847) som innehåller tekniska egenskapskrav på byggnader.</p><p>I ett antal intervjuer som skickats ut till personer vid större svenska företag undersöks i vilken utsträckning kolfiberförstärkningen används. Även som vad olika aktörerna i byggbranschen anser om metoden att förstärka betongkonstruktioner med kolfiber. Svaren visar att kolfiberförstärkningar är dyra jämfört med andra metoder dessutom att en standardisering av metoderna skulle behövas. Dessutom framkommer det hur viktigt det är med kunskaper samt utbildning i ämnet. Men också att CFRP är en populär förstärkningsmetod. Särskilt i trånga utrymmen.</p><p>Resultatet består av ett förslag till en utbildningsplan för projektörer och entreprenörer. I resultatet ingår även ett stycke för hur projektörer metodiskt bör arbeta när de ställs inför projekt där produkter de inte är bekanta med kan vara inblandade.</p> / <p>The goal of the thesis is to perform an investigation of CFRP (Carbon fibre reinforced polymers) by reviewing literature and performing an interview study. The thesis will discuss how a consultant should when facing products that is new to her/him</p><p>In recent years it has become more common to reinforce existing concrete structures using carbon fibre reinforced polymers. Another common method is to reinforce concrete elements with either beams or thinner sheets of steel. There are several reasons why a certain building or other types of construction need reinforcing. One reason being the scope of use changes. Compared to steel carbon fibre is a very light material that is able to support very big loads compared to its own weight. Because of its strength a layer of just a few millimeters of CFRP that is attached to a structure significantly increases its load capacity. The composite consists of carbon fibre that is attached to the concrete using epoxy to form the adhesive bond. It is of outmost importance that the CFRP is treated with care for it to work as intended. It is very resistant to corrosion but it may only be subjected to tension. If the fibre is compressed it might buckle.</p><p>CFRP may be used to strengthen a construction subjected to tension forces, shear forces or eccentric forces and finally longitudinal forces. There are three types of CFRP laminates, fabrics (or weave) and bars witch all can be applied in different ways. Calculation and installation of the products must be done with care to make sure that the reinforcement works as intended. Moisture and particles at the worksite must be removed. Otherwise they might interfere and prevent the adhesive to bond the CFRP to the concrete.</p><p>Currently there is no standardized way to use the products in Sweden. This makes it difficult to compare results from research because the tests are designed by differed research groups with their own criteria. An international test standard is also nonexistent. Reason behind why there currently is no standard might be that the methods still are relatively new to the market. It might also be because no one has taken it upon themselves to perform the work needed to produce a standard.</p><p>Constructors and entrepreneurs who use the products need to have the correct education to be suitable for handling CFRP. The design process might be a bit complicated and the conditions at the worksite need to be well prepared for the reinforcing system to bond to the concrete. Finally the reinforcement work is required to fulfill the laws and demands which are established in the Swedish law Byggnadsverkslagen.</p><p>The interviews was sent to employees within large Swedish corporations to investigate to what extent they use CFRP. Their general opinions about the products were also collected. The interviews show that generally CFRP is regarded as an expensive yet an exceptional method for strengthening: Also that a standard would help very the methods. In addition to this the interviews also show that education is a very important factor that needs to be considered.</p><p>The result of this thesis is suggestion for an education plan for consultants and entrepreneurs who is interested in using CFRP. Included in the result is also a plan that discuses how consultants should approach new products that they are not familiar with.</p>

<p>The goal with this examination thesis is to investigate the difference in carbon dioxide emissions between a building with a wooden versus concrete carcassing from a life cycle perspective. The huge amounts of carbon dioxide released into air from human activities must be reduced to prevent serious consequences. A way to limit this issue is through performing a comparative study where the result shows which of two products with the same function has the lowest emission of carbon dioxide, whereof the product with the lowest carbon dioxide pollution can be chosen.</p><p>To be able to perform a study like this an object has been chosen and studies about life cycle analyses have been done. The rental square meter, the thermal conductivity value, the energy requirements and the placement of the building has been set equal in both framework types. There were solely dissimilarities of the two buildings taken into account when this comparison study was performed.</p><p>The result of the study is that a building constructed with a wooden carcassing has the lowest amount of carbon dioxide emissions. The difference in carbon dioxide pollution is 22 ton which connotes a difference in 15 percent.</p> / <p>Detta examensarbete har som mål att undersöka hur stora skillnader i koldioxidutsläpp som uppstår om man har en trä- respektive betongstomme ur ett livscykelperspektiv. De stora mängder koldioxid som släpps ut till luften på grund av människans aktiviteter måste försöka begränsas då en förstärkt växthuseffekt kan leda till allvarliga konsekvenser. Ett sätt att göra detta på är att studera vilken av två produkter med samma funktion som har lägst koldioxidutsläpp. Därav kan produkten med lägst koldioxidutsläpp väljas.</p><p>För att kunna genomföra denna studie har ett objekt bestämts och en studie kring livscykelanalyser gjorts. Byggnaden som används har en fastställd uthyrbar yta, lika u-värde i ytterväggar, samma energibehov och samma placering i båda fallen. I denna jämförelsestudie utförs beräkningarna bara på olikheter mellan de två byggnaderna.</p><p>Resultatet av studien gav ett lägre koldioxidutsläpp för objektet med trästomme. Skillnaden mellan de två objekten är 22 ton i koldioxidutsläpp vilket innebär en skillnad på 15 procent.</p>

In this investigation strength and structural behaviour of prestressed concrete is studied with one full scale test of one flat slab, 16000 mm x 19000 mm, and three slabs on ground each 4000 mm x 4000 mm with thickness 150 mm. The flat slab was constructed and tested in Aalesund. This slab has nine circular columns as support, each with diameter 450 mm. Thickness of this test slab was 230 mm and there were two spans in each direction, 2 x 9000 mm in x-direction and 2 x 7500 mm in y-direction from centre to centre column. The slab was reinforced with twenty tendons in the middle column strip in y-direction and eight tendons in both outer column strips. In x-direction tendons were distributed with 340 mm distance. There were also ordinary reinforcement bars in the slab. Strain gauges were welded to this reinforcement, which together with the deflection measurements gives a good indication of deformation and strains in the structure. At a live load of 6.5 kN/m2 shear failure around the central column occurred: The shear capacity calculated after NS 3473 and EuroCode2 was passed with 58 and 69 %, respectively. Time dependent and non-linear FE analyses were performed with the program system DIANA. Although calculated and measured results partly agree well, the test show that this type of structure is complicated to analyse by non-linear FEM. Prestressed slabs on ground have no tradition in Norway. In this test one reinforced and two prestressed slabs on ground were tested and compared to give a basis for a better solution for slabs on ground. This test was done in the laboratory at Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. The first slab is reinforced with 8 mm bars in both directions distributed at a distance of 150 mm in top and bottom. Slab two and three are prestressed with 100 mm2 tendons located in the middle of slab thickness, and distributed at a distance of 630 mm in slab two and 930 mm in slab three. Strain gauges were glued to the reinforcement in slab one and at top and bottom surface of all three slabs. In slab two and three there were four load cells on the tendons. Each slab were loaded with three different load cases, in the centre of slab, at the edge and finally in the corner. This test shows that stiffness of sub-base is one of the most important parameters when calculating slabs on ground. Deflection and crack load level depends of this parameter. Since the finish of slabs on ground is important, it can be more interesting to find the load level when cracks start, than deflection for the slab. It is shown in this test that crack load level was higher in prestressed slabs than in reinforced slab. There was no crack in the top surface with load in the centre, but strain gauges in the bottom surface indicate that crack starts at a load of 28 kN in the reinforced slab, and 45 kN in the prestressed slabs. Load at the edge give a crack load of 30 kN in reinforced slab, 45 kN and 60 kN in prestressed slabs. The last load case gives crack load of 30 kN in reinforced slab, 107 kN and 75 kN in prestressed slabs. As for the flat slab, FE analyses were performed for all of the three slabs on ground, and analyses shows that a good understanding of parameters like stiffness of sub-base and tension softening model, is needed for correct result of the analyses.

The thesis deals with experimental and numerical modelling to characterize early age tensile and compressive creep and its associated stress relaxation - which are very important properties in stress simulation of early age concrete. For this purpose a comprehensive work was carried out involving construction of a new tensile creep test equipment and development of test procedures to generate basic experimental data. The experimental program is subdivided into four series. Each of the series involves one varying parameter, which is relevant to the time-dependent behaviour of early age HPC. Most of the tests are repeated to check the reproducibility of the test results. The reproducibility of the test results for the BASE concretes confirmed that the experimental setup is reliable, and that it can be used to determine tensile creep of concrete at early ages. An extensive test program has been performed on HPC, with w/b = 0.40. The primary parameters studied were concrete ages at loading (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 days), stress/strength levels (20-80%), and temperature levels (20, 34, 40, 57 and 60 oC) in addition to the effect of silica fume (0-15%) on tensile creep. The testing apparatus was new and significant efforts were devoted to develop reliable procedures in terms of accuracy and reproducibility. In parallel, compressive creep tests were conducted on a separate testing apparatus, and the results are compared to tensile creep behaviour. It was found that the instantaneous deformation under tension is smaller than under compression, and that the corresponding creep curves also are different. Creep in tension is found to be lower initially, but an almost linear rate is soon established which is much higher than in compression. The consequence is greater creep magnitude and thus greater creep coefficient in tension than in compression. The tests on non-linearity showed that the proportionality limit between stress and sealed tensile creep strain is about 60% of the strength. Creep tests under isothermal temperatures showed that, as for compressive creep, the sealed tensile creep accelerates for temperatures higher than 20 oC. In addition, the maturity principle describes this effect reasonably well, for the tested loading ages of about 3 days. The relatively large amount of experimental data, available in this study, has been used to investigate mathematical models. Comprehensive test results from the TSTM apparatus are analyzed with respect to creep and relaxation, where the effect of temperature on creep and relaxation is emphasized. Simulations of self-induced stresses are performed using the creep model denoted the Double Power Law (DPL). As solution method, the theory of linear viscoelasticity with aging is used. The model (M-DPL) is modified to take into account the effect of irrecoverable creep. For increasing temperatures during the hardening phase, the transient creep, which takes place during heating is taken into account by an additional creep term. Its contribution to stress relaxation was found to be up to 10%. This transient creep term is considered to be irrecoverable during the subsequent temperature decrease. The modified model captures the various characteristics of sealed creep and describes the tensile behaviour at early ages more accurately than the original Double Power Law. The effect of relaxation is found to be relatively large and significant in development of selfinduced stresses. Under isothermal temperature of 20 oC, the relaxation increases to about 40% of the fictive elastic stresses after 3 days and remains about constant after that. On the other hand, presentation of relaxation under realistic temperature histories is much more complicated, because the stresses change from compression to tension. This might also lead to increased tensile stresses because compressive creep reduces compressive stresses, but increases the subsequent tensile stresses. Underestimation of creep in this early period will lead to underestimation of the cracking risk. Creep development at very early ages has an important effect in determination of the creep model parameters. After an evaluation of the test results using six loading ages (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 days) it was concluded that an optimal test program should include at least 3 loading ages, in which the loading ages 1 and 2 must be included. Furthermore, the test results indicate that partial replacement of cement with silica fume (5-15%) increases the sealed tensile creep. However, the reference concrete without silica fume dose not fit to this systematic pattern.