Thesis (MScFor)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Kiaat trees in Namibia are threatened by unsustainable harvesting practice. This study’s aim was to estimate the total value of an average Kiaat tree selected for harvesting with a focus on current timber use value, value of an optimally utilised tree, carbon value, and alternative uses of Kiaat trees. To accomplish this aim, the following specific objectives were set: (1) to estimate the total tree volume and optimum utilisable timber volume of an average Kiaat tree; (2) to estimate the amount and value of carbon stored in the above-ground parts of an average Kiaat tree; (3) to determine timber utilisation levels; and (4) to identify alternative use options to reduce timber losses of Kiaat trees. Previous studies on Kiaat in Namibia and elsewhere focused on growth, development and socio-economical aspects of Kiaat trees. A combination of a socio-economic survey and tree volumes and biomass determination was used to collect data. The survey entailed Kiaat products assessment and face-to-face personal interviews with known key-informants in and around Rundu. Loggers with permits to harvest Kiaat trees were asked to harvest 40 Kiaat trees and data collected from each tree before and after felling included: lower-stem diameter, diameter at breast height (DBH), upper-stem diameter, stem length, stump height, recovered merchantable logs lengths and lower-and-upper diameters and lengths of branches greater than 10 cm in diameter. All canopy parts smaller than 10 cm in diameter were directly weighed, sampled and oven-dried at 105°C until constant weight. Volume of different tree parts was calculated and in combination with basic wood density used to calculate the biomass. It was established that a typically harvested Kiaat tree had an above-ground dry volume of 1.63 m3, of which 1.34 m3 (82%) was utilisable timber volume but that only 0.37 m3 (23%) was used and 0.97 m3 (59%) was left behind in the field. Merchantable logs were mainly cut into planks from which finished products - beds, chairs, doors and tables - were made. An average of 10.7 planks were cut per trunk and the local price of planks was N$45.26 at the time of the study. More income is generated from finished products compared to selling loose planks. Canopy parts were mainly cut into woodcrafts – bowls, music drums, and walking sticks. Current timber use value (N$484.73) surpasses carbon value (N$123.74). A further result of the study was that a significantly higher income could be earned for local livelihoods from Kiaat trees in the Kavango Region if trees were optimally used. Carbon trading is a noble conservation initiative, particularly when trees unsuitable for timber are considered. Use of timber trees exclusively for carbon trading is, however, not a viable option in respect of supporting local people’s livelihoods. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kiaatbome in Namibië word bedreig deur onvolhoubare ontginningspraktyke. Die doelwit van die studie was om die totale waarde van ‘n gemiddelde Kiaatboom, wat gekies is vir ontginning, te bepaal met die fokus op huidige houtwaarde, waarde van ‘n optimaal gebruikte boom, koolstofwaarde en alternatiewe gebruike vir Kiaatbome. Om hierdie doelwit te bereik is die volgende spesifieke sub-doelwitte gestel: (1) bepaal die totale boomvolume en optimale bruikbare houtvolume van ‘n gemiddelde Kiaatboom; (2) bepaal die hoeveelheid koolstof wat in die bogrondse dele van ‘n gemiddelde Kiaatboom gestoor word en bereken die monitêrewaarde daarvan; (3) bepaal die houtgebruiksvlakke en houtvermorsing van Kiaatbome; en (4) identifiseer alternatiewe gebruike om die vermorsing van Kiaatbome te verminder. Vorige studies oor Kiaat in Namibië en elders het gefokus op groei, ontwikkeling en sosio-ekonomiese aspekte van Kiaatbome. ‘n Kombinasie van ‘n sosio-ekonomiese opname en boomvolume en biomassa bepalings is gebruik vir die insameling van data. Die opname het ‘n Kiaat produkbepaling en gesig-tot-gesig persoonlike onderhoude met sleutel informante in en om Rundu behels. Boomkappers met permitte om kiaatbome te ontgin is gevra om 40 Kiaatbome te ontgin en data is versamel van elke boom voor en na ontginning. Die data het ingesluit: lae-stam deursnee, deursnee op borshoogte (DBH), bo-stam deursnee, stamlengte, stomphoogte, herwinde bruikbare stomplengte, bo- en onder- deursnee en lengtes van takke wat 10 cm of groter deursnee het. All kroondele 10 cm en kleiner in deursnee is geweeg en ‘n steekproef versamel wat oondroog gemaak is by 105ºC totdat konstante gewig bereik is. Die volume van verskillende boomdele is bereken en in kombinasie met houtdigtheid gebruik om biomassa te bereken. Dit is bereken dat ‘n tipiese geoeste Kiaatboom ‘n bogrondse droë volume van 1.63 m³ het, waarvan 1.34 m³ (82%) bruikbare houtvolume is. Net 0.37 m³ (23%) van die bruikbare houtvolume is egter gebruik en 0.97 m³ (59%) is agtergelaat in die veld. Bruikbare stompe is meestal opgesaag in planke waarvan finale produkte soos beddens, stoele, deure en tafels gemaak is. ‘n Gemiddeld van 10.7 planke is verkry per stomp en die plaaslike prys van planke was N$45.26 gedurende die studie tydperk. Meer inkomste is verkry van finale produkte as van die verkoop van los planke. Kroondele is meestal opgesaag in houtkunswerke soos bakke, musiekdromme en kieries. Die huidige houtwaarde van N$484.73 is meer as die koolstof waarde (N$123.74) van die bome. ‘n Belangrike resultaat van die studie is dat ‘n beduidende groter inkomste gegenereer kan word vir plaaslike lewensbestaan van Kiaatbome in die Kavangostreek as bome optimaal benut word. Koolstofhandel is ‘n edele bewaringskonsep, veral as bome ongeskik vir houtgebruik is soos in die geval van krom bome en jonger bome. Die eksklusiewe gebruik van houtbome vir koolstofhandel is nie ‘n lewensvatbare opsie om plaaslike mense se lewensbestaan te ondersteun nie.

The pressing global demand to transform to a low-carbon business community, which is required by the urgency of mitigating climate change, significantly alters the operating procedures for carbon emitters and carbon revenue generators alike. Although agricultural activities are not considered as heavy carbon emission source, the increased public focus on climate change has catapulted the exploitation of sustainable agricultural land management mitigating strategies as intervention by the sector. Additionally, the focus on market-based mechanism to address climate change, which has led to the evolution of cap-and-trade schemes, makes the agricultural sector become a source of low-cost carbon offsets. However, the fact that cap-and-trade schemes in the agricultural sector are voluntary has resulted into not only very diverse farming practices but also diverse accounting practices. The consequences of the diversity practices are that, the impacts on financial performance and position are not comparable. Therefore, the overall objective of this study was to investigate the recognition, measurement and disclosure for cap-and-trade schemes in the agricultural sectors This study was conducted through literature reviews and empirical test. A qualitative research approach utilising constructivist methodology was employed. Primary data was collected in Kenya by administering three sets of semi-structured questionnaires to drafters of financial statements, loan officers and financial consultants. Secondary data involved content analysis of financial statements and reports of listed entities across the globe. It was established that proper accounting for cap-and-trade schemes adaptation activities is critical to the success of an entity’s environmental portfolio. Additionally, a model for valuing an organisation's carbon capture potential as suggested by this study enables entities to better report the impact of the adaptation activities on the financial performance and financial position. The outcome of this study enables entities to integrate the carbon capture potential on an entity sustainability reporting framework. / Colleges of Economic and Management Sciences / D. Phil. (Accounting Science)

According to the United States Department of Energy, fossil-fueled power plants account for 78% of stationary source CO2 emission in the United States and Canada. This has led electric utilities across the globe to research different alternatives for energy. Carbon sequestration has been identified as a bridge between fossil fuels and clean energy. This thesis will present research results regarding the transportation costs of CO2 and the suitability of geology in the Florida Pan-Handle for sequestration infrastructure. The thesis will utilize various evaluation tools including GIS, numerical models, and optimization models. Analysis performed for this thesis and review of published literature produced estimated carbon storage capacities for two areas in and near the Florida Pan-Handle. These areas were labeled Disposal Area 1 and Disposal Area 3. Disposal Area 1 was estimated to contain capacity for the storage of 5.58 gigatonnes of CO2. Disposal Area 3 was estimated to contain capacity for the storage of 2.02 gigatonnes of CO2. Transportation scenarios were analyzed over a 25 year period and the capacities above are sufficient to store the CO2 emissions from the Pan-Handle network of power plants for the study period. Four transportation routing scenarios were investigated using transportation costs from the Poiencot and Brown CO2 pipeline capital cost model. The scenarios (models) consisted of the Right-Of-Way, Solo-Funded, Piece-Wise, and Authority models. Each presents a different method for the overall funding of the Florida Pan-Handle CO2 network and produced different total levelized and mean unit costs. The cheapest network on a mean unit cost basis was the network for Disposal Area 1 in the Authority Model, producing a mean unit cost of $0.64 per tonne of CO2.

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The climate on earth keeps getting warmer where heat waves, eutrophication, rising sea levels, extreme weather like flooding, droughts and wildfires are an expanding problem. The focus of this bachelor thesis is to determine the potential of mitigating eutrophication and while contributing to blue growth by harvesting and make use of reeds like Phragmites australis and Arundo donax. Reeds have the ability to quickly absorb nutrients from aquatic environments and there are opportunities to use them as a feedstock for producing biochar to be potentially used in areas such as soil improvement, fodder additive and carbon sequestration. Additionally, optimal biochar properties for the observed applications gets analysed. The thesis is based on a systematic literature review and an interview with Niclas Anvret at the non-profit organisation “Race for the Baltic”.  Results show that biochar produced according to parameters such as heating rate, biomass species and especially, different temperatures, results in varied characteristics that change the biochar's adsorption abilities, nutrient retention, alkalinity, stability, surface area and porosity volume. The different applications of biochar are, however, not easily determined. This is because of the fact that certain biochar properties, that are prominent in entirely different pyrolysis conditions, could both be beneficial for the same application. Additionally, the different attributes sometimes influence each other which gives rise to unclear patterns affecting use potential. To overcome these issues, more research is needed to clarify the correlations between attributes of the biochar and to determine which characteristics of biochar are best suited for each application.  In terms of how large-scale harvesting of reed could affect the ecosystem is also unclear, there is not enough research regarding the question to be able to draw clear conclusions. The reasoning behind this is that there are knowledge gaps, geographical differences, different unit measuring and methodology. The potential for biochar in the coal market is high and the demand in Sweden has risen over the past couple of years. There is also interest in using biochar as a soil amendment, to make use of nutrient content as well as applying organic matter to soils to potentially achieve long-term carbon sequestration. However, the production cost of biochar out of reed is relatively expensive, and it cannot compete with coal or other fertilisers/soil amendments on the market, with feedstock management usually being the most expensive part of production. Lastly, there is currently no harvesting method that can measure the amount of reed that needs to be harvested to be able to produce biochar on a large scale. / Klimatet på jorden blir allt varmare och värmeböljor, övergödning, stigande havsnivåer, extrema väder som översvämningar, torka och bränder är ett stigande problem. Syftet med denna kandidatuppsats är att undersöka potentialen att mildra eutrofiering och samtidigt bidra till blå tillväxt genom att skörda - och använda sig av vass som Phragmites australis och Arundo donax. Vass har en framträdande förmåga att absorbera näringsämnen. Det finns därför möjligheter att använda dem som råvara för att producera biokol som potentiellt kan användas i områden såsom jordförbättring, fodertillsatser och kolbindning. Utöver detta undersöks optimala egenskaper för biokol enligt de observerade applikationerna. Kandidatuppsatsen bygger på en systematisk litteraturstudie och en intervju med Niclas Anvret på den ideella organisationen ”Race for the Baltic”.  Resultaten indikerar att biokol, producerad i pyrolys enligt parametrar som uppvärmningshastighet, biomassa och i synnerhet olika temperaturer, resulterar i varierande egenskaper som förändrar biokolets absorptionsförmåga, bibehållande av näring, alkalinitet, stabilitet, ytarea och porositetsvolym. De olika tillämpningarna av biokol är emellertid svåra att avgöra på grund av vissa biokolegenskaper. Dessa egenskaper är framträdande under helt olika pyrolysförhållanden men kan samtidigt vara fördelaktiga för samma typ av applikation. Dessutom påverkar de olika attributen ibland varandra vilket ger upphov till komplexa trender som påverkar användningspotentialen. För att kunna dra tydliga slutsatser behövs mer forskning för att klargöra sambandet mellan biokolens attribut och för att bestämma vilken samling egenskaper hos biokol som passar bäst för varje applikation.  Hur storskalig skörd av vass kan påverka ekosystemet är fortfarande oklart. Det finns inte tillräckligt med forskning kring frågan för att kunna dra tydliga slutsatser. Detta beror på att det finns kunskapsluckor, geografiska skillnader, olika måttenheter och metoder för de studier som gjorts inom detta område. Potentialen för biokol på kolmarknaden är hög och efterfrågan i Sverige har ökat de senaste åren. Det finns också intresse för att använda biokol för jordförbättring, dels för att använda näringsinnehållet men också för att applicera biokol i jorden för att potentiellt uppnå långvarig kolbindning. Dock är produktionskostnaden för biokol gjort på vass mycket kostsam och kan därför inte konkurrera med fossilt kol eller andra gödselmedel jordförändringar på marknaden. Detta beror främst på råvaruhanteringen som är den dyraste delen av produktionen. Slutligen finns det för närvarande ingen skördemetod som kan mäta den mängd vass som behöver skördas för att kunna producera biokol i stor skala.

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Diese Arbeit ist ein Beitrag zur Entwicklung einer Strategie für die eine CO2 sparende zu- künftige Landwirtschaft, in der nur geringe Emissionen von Treibhausgasen entstehen, die Stromerzeugung vor Ort aus natürlichen Ressourcen erfolgt, eine maximale Ausnutzung der Sonnenenergie genutzt wird, und der Konflikt zwischen der Nutzung der verfügbaren Ressourcen für Nahrungsmittel und Treibstoff Produktion vermieden wird. Alle Versuche in der Arbeit wurden in den Jahren 2005 -2009 auf der Öko-Farm (TOSOLY) der UTA (Fundación para la Producción Agropecuaria Tropical Sostenible Capitulo Kolumbien - UTA) unter der Leitung von Dr. TR Preston (Präsident ) und MSc Lylian Rodríguez (Director) durchgeführt. / This thesis is a contribution to the strategy that should underpin all future farming systems: namely the need to “de-carbonize” the system, by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, generating electricity locally from natural resources, making maximum use of solar energy and ensuring there is no conflict between use of available resources for both food and fuel production. All the experiments described in the thesis were carried out in the period 2005 -2009 at the ecological farm (TOSOLY) of the UTA Foundation (Fundación para la Producción Agropecuaria Tropical Sostenible Capitulo Colombia – UTA) of which the principals are Dr T R Preston (President) and MSc Lylian Rodríguez (Director).

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