Content analyses of research in the literature of gifted education (Coleman, 2006; Rogers, 1999, 2006) has shown a consistent absence of research investigating methodology for instructing gifted students and for the development of expertise using new technologies. In this study, utilising electronic instructional delivery, an investigation was undertaken of the differential effects and appropriateness of matching the prior knowledge of the learner to the instructional method. Underpinned with a theoretical understanding of gifted education and cognitive load theory, a series of three experiments was designed and implemented to determine whether gifted students learn more effectively under guided discovery design than with example based instruction, while not identified as gifted ability students perform significantly better under direct example based instruction than with guided discovery. Data were collected and analysed in three stages. Experiment 1 was conducted in the novel domain of Boolean switching equations. Experiments 2 and 3 used identical test instruments with novel tasks in the semi-familiar domain of geometry. A total of 155 Years 7, 8 and 9 students at three metropolitan secondary schools participated. The study explored whether the presence of schemas, that facilitated greater problem-solving ability in gifted students, would generate clear evidence of instructional efficiency and preference for either mode of instruction. As students advanced from novice state to expert in particular domains of learning, it was anticipated that gifted students would progress from benefiting from worked example instruction to more efficient learning in guided discovery mode. This hypothesis was rejected as the results from each of the experiments did not confirm the hypothesised outcomes. There was no manifested expertise-reversal effect. The absence of any clear delineation of enhanced learning proficiency mode of instruction for gifted students does, however, contribute to the advancement and understanding of cognitive load theory and the complexity of learning strategies necessary for gifted learners.

Comment les animations pédagogiques doivent-elles être conçues pour améliorer l'apprentissage? Quels sont les facteurs qui doivent être pris en compte lors de du design des animations? Les récents progrès dans le domaine d'enseignement assisté par ordinateur ont permis de créer des visualisations dynamiques telles que les animations pour présenter des informations dynamiques qui changent au cours du temps et dans l'espace. Cependant, plusieurs recherches ont montré que les animations imposent de lourdes demandes sur les ressources de la mémoire de travail entraînant une diminution des résultats d'apprentissage. En se basant sur une perspective de la charge cognitive, nous avons essayé de manager la charge cognitive imposée par des animations de football à travers l'utilisation de différents designs pédagogiques. Les résultats ont indiqué des interactions significatives entre ces designs et le niveau d'expertise des joueurs, conduisant au phénomène connu sous le nom d'effet du renversement de l'expertise. Selon cet effet, les designs pédagogiques qui sont efficaces pour les joueurs novices peuvent devenir inefficaces, voire même nuisibles pour les joueurs experts. Les résultats soulignent l'importance d'ajuster les designs pédagogiques aux changements du niveau d'expertise du joueur. / How instructional animations should be designed in order to enhance learning? What factors need to be taken into account in the design of animations? Recent advances in computer-based instruction have made it possible to produce dynamic visualizations such as animations to depict dynamic information that change over time and space. However, there has been increasing evidence accumulated that animations often impose significant working memory demands resulting in decreased learning outcomes. Based on a cognitive load perspective, in this thesis, we tried to effectively manage cognitive load imposed by soccer animations through the use of different forms of instructional designs. The results indicated significant interactions between these instructional designs and levels of player expertise, leading to the phenomenon known as the expertise reversal effect. According to this effect, the instructional designs that are effective for novice players may become ineffective or even detrimental for expert players. The findings argue for the importance of tailoring instructional designs to changing levels of player expertise.

Os mapas conceituais são organizadores gráficos que favorecem a descrição explícita de relações conceituais por causa da necessidade de elaborá-los a partir de proposições contendo um termo de ligação. O desafio de obter mapas conceituais elaborados pelos alunos que sejam correlacionáveis com parte dos seus modelos mentais é um obstáculo que merece mais investigações. Dois aspectos relevantes podem ser usualmente negligenciados por parte dos docentes que usam os mapas conceituais em sala de aula: (i) a necessidade de treinar os alunos na técnica de mapeamento conceitual e (ii) a importância de se definir como os mapas conceituais serão solicitados aos alunos. O descuido com esses fatores resulta em mapas conceituais superficiais e com baixa clareza semântica, que não refletem a organização conceitual que está contida na estrutura cognitiva do mapeador. Nesse trabalho investigamos o uso de mapas conceituais como ferramenta de avaliação em um dos momentos da disciplina ACH 0131 Ciências da Natureza oferecida a alunos ingressantes na graduação, a fim de verificar o conhecimento conceitual dos alunos sobre Astronomia sob a perspectiva do desenvolvimento tecnológico e científico. Dois mapas conceituais foram considerados nessa pesquisa: um construído uma semana antes da prova e que poderia ser usado como material de consulta (MC-PREP) e outro que era parte da avaliação e deveria ser construído no dia da prova (MC-AVAL). Para esse trabalho propusemos dois estudos complementares para avaliação do efeito da elaboração do MC-PREP sobre as características estruturais e semânticas do MC-AVAL (Estudo I) e avaliação da relação entre características estruturais e semânticas do MC-AVAL e o entendimento conceitual dos alunos sobre a Astronomia no contexto do surgimento da Ciência Moderna e do avanço científico-tecnológico (Estudo II). Como metodologia, utilizamos análises que consideram os mapas sobre os níveis de conceito, proposição e rede proposicional, oferecendo várias perspectivas sob as quais os mapas conceituais elaborados pelos alunos podem ser avaliados. No Estudo I foi possível verificar que a elaboração do MC-PREP não influenciou nas características estruturais do MC-AVAL, mas influenciou nas características semânticas, de modo que os alunos construíram mais proposições apropriadas e mostraram uma baixa incidência de fuga à pergunta focal. No Estudo II verificamos que os fatores dos MC-AVAL que são positivamente correlacionáveis com o entendimento conceitual dos alunos sobre o tema são, principalmente, a quantidade de proposições apropriadas e a escolha de conceitos mais complexos para compor o mapa de prova. Concluímos com esse trabalho que para alunos bem treinados na técnica de mapeamento conceitual a elaboração de um mapa conceitual preparatório não influencia nas características do mapa de prova mesmo estando próximos da etapa de treinamento. Isso foi explicado pelas características restritivas da demanda e pela proficiência dos alunos. Sob os aspectos semânticos constatamos que a preparação dos alunos influenciou positivamente nas características do MC-AVAL e também que os mapas obtidos eram correlacionáveis com o conhecimento declarativo dos alunos, podendo ser utilizados como ferramentas para avaliação da aprendizagem. / Concept maps are graphic organizers that favor the explicit description of conceptual relationships due to the need to prepare them from propositions that containing a binding term. The challenge to obtain concept maps prepared by students that are correlated with part of their mental models is an obstacle that deserves further investigation. Two important aspects can usually be neglected by teachers who use concept maps in the classroom: (i) the need to train students in the concept mapping technique, and (ii) the importance of to define how the concept maps are requested to students. These two aspects of assessment task with the use of maps generated in students working memory cognitive loads that need to be managed. The neglect of these factors results in superficial concept maps and low semantic clarity that do not reflect the conceptual organization that is contained in cognitive structure of mapper. In this work we investigate the use of concept maps as an assessment tool in one of the moments of discipline ACH 0131 Natural Science offered to first year undergraduate students, in order to verify the conceptual knowledge of students about astronomy from the perspective of technological and scientific development. Two concept maps were considered in this study: the first done one week before the test and that could be used as reference material (CM-PREP) and other that was a part of the test and should be done on day test (CM-EVAL). For this work we proposed two complementary studies to evaluate the effect of the preparation of CM-PREP about the structural and semantic features of the CM-EVAL (Study I) and evaluation of the relationship between structural and semantic features of the CM-EVAL and conceptual understanding of students about astronomy in the context of the emergence of modern science and scientific-technological development (Study II). As methodology were used the analyzes that consider the maps on the levels of concept, proposition and propositional network, offering several perspectives under which the conceptual maps prepared by students can be evaluated. The Study I showed that the development of CM-PREP did not influence the structural features of the CM-EVAL, but influenced the semantic features, so the students used more appropriate propositions and showed a low incidence of escape of the focal question. The Study II verified that the factors of CM-EVAL that are positively correlated with the conceptual understanding of students on the subject are mainly the amount of appropriate propositions and the choice of more complex concepts to compose the test map. We conclude with this work that for well trained students in the concept mapping technique the elaboration of a preparatory concept map does not influence the test map structural features even being near to the training stage. This was explained by the restrictive characteristics of demand and the proficiency of students. On the semantic aspects we observed that the preparation of the students had a positive effect on CM-EVAL features and also that the obtained maps were correlated with the declarative knowledge of the students and can be used as tools for learning assessment.

Os mapas conceituais (MCs) são organizadores gráficos com grande potencial para estimular a aprendizagem significativa. Porém, poucos trabalhos exploram o uso dos MCs elaborados pelo professor como material instrucional de Química. Nesta tese, a explicação química para dois fenômenos macroscópicos (cor nos fogos de artifício e a condução elétrica em diferentes materiais) foram escolhidos para serem representados e ensinados por meio dos MCs. A possibilidade de ler o MC de várias formas, a necessidade em estabelecer uma sequência de leitura e, a dificuldade do conteúdo representado podem gerar, no aluno que interage com o material, uma sensação de desorientação. A desorientação compromete os recursos cognitivos destinados à aprendizagem (processamento generativo) devido a uma alta complexidade do conteúdo (i.e., carga cognitiva intrínseca) ou a um formato de instrução inadequado (i.e., carga cognitiva extrínseca). Considerando os pressupostos da Teoria da Carga Cognitiva e da Teoria da Aprendizagem Multimídia, esses materiais devem ser elaborados de modo que as demandas cognitivas impostas ao aluno não excedam a limitada capacidade da MT, caso contrário, não sobrará recursos cognitivos suficientes para processar e adquirir novas informações, isto é, aprender. Sendo assim, o objetivo dessa tese foi avaliar o impacto de algumas estratégias para minimizar a desorientação provocada por MCs que organizam conteúdos de Química e, consequentemente, potencializar a aprendizagem de conceitos científicos. Três estudos foram conduzidos para avaliar o impacto do uso de dicas gráficas de navegação (Estudo I), do tipo de organização conceitual (Estudo II), do uso de recursos digitais associados ao MC (i.e., um hipertexto) e do nível de conhecimento prévio dos alunos (Estudo III) no ganho de conhecimento factual e conceitual e na carga cognitiva (e.g., esforço mental) declarada para compreender o conteúdo químico. Ao total, 253 alunos ingressantes à Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo participaram desta pesquisa entre os anos de 2014 e 2017. A metodologia quantitativa (em um planejamento quase-experimental) foi adotada para comparar estatisticamente as médias de desempenho e esforço mental dos alunos alocados em diferentes condições experimentais. Com base nos resultados, foi possível concluir que (1) independentemente do tipo de MC utilizado como material instrucional, todos os alunos foram capazes de aumentar o seu nível de conhecimento factual sobre o conteúdo químico e, (2) o uso da cor e da hierarquia conceitual como dicas gráficas de navegação foram capazes de minimizar a desorientação provocada pelos MCs via gestão de carga intrínseca e redução da carga extrínseca, respectivamente. O processamento generativo pôde ser potencializado pelo uso de recursos digitais associados ao MC, tornando-o um hipertexto com certo grau de orientação de navegação. Algumas implicações educacionais, limitações da pesquisa e possibilidade de estudos futuros também são apresentadas. / Concept maps (Cmaps) are graphical organisers with great potential to foster meaningful learning. However, just a few studies explore the use of teacher-prepared Cmaps as chemistry instructional material. In this thesis, chemical explanations for two macroscopic phenomena (the colour in fireworks and electric conductivity) are chosen to be represented and taught through Cmaps. The possibility of reading the Cmap in different ways, the need for establishing a reading sequence and the content difficulty can lead, for the learner who is interacting with the material, a sense of disorientation. Disorientation impairs the cognitive resources that should be used for learning (generative processes) due to either a high content complexity (i.e., intrinsic load) or an unsuited format of instruction (i.e., extraneous load). Based on the assumptions of Cognitive Load Theory and Multimedia Learning Theory, these materials should be elaborated in a way that the cognitive load imposed to the learners does not exceed the limited working memory capacity, otherwise, there are no left cognitive resources to process and acquire new knowledge (i.e., learn). The thesis\' goal was to evaluate the impact of some strategies in minimizing the disorientation of Cmap that organizes chemistry contents and, consequently, to foster scientific conceptual learning. Three studies were conducted to evaluate the impact of: using navigational graphical cues (Study I), different types of conceptual organisation (Study II), using digital resources linked to the Cmap (i.e., hypertext) and the level of learners\' prior knowledge (Study III) on the gain of factual and conceptual knowledge and the cognitive load (e.g., mental effort) related to understanding the chemical content. In total, 253 freshman university students to the School of Arts, Science and Humanities of the University of São Paulo participated in this research between 2014 and 2017. A quantitative methodology (by a pre-test-to-post-test quasi-experimental design) were adopted for statistically comparing the mean of performance and mental effort from students in different experimental conditions. Considering the results, it was concluded that: (1) regardless the type of Cmap used as instructional material, all students were capable to improve their level of factual knowledge about chemical concepts and (2) the use of colour and conceptual hierarchy as navigational graphical cues decreased Cmap disorientation by managing intrinsic load and reducing extraneous load, respectively. Generative processing was fostered using digital resources linked to the Cmap by offering a scaffold for hypertext navigation. Some educational implications, research limitations and future studies are also presented.

Os mapas conceituais são ferramentas gráficas que possibilitam a representação dos modelos mentais do aluno. Devido a essa capacidade, o mapa conceitual pode ser utilizado como ferramenta avaliativa de conhecimento. O uso dessa ferramenta em sala de aula gera cargas na memória de trabalho que podem ser referentes ao conteúdo (carga intrínseca) ou à forma como esse recurso está sendo trabalhado na sala de aula (carga extrínseca). Este trabalho tem por objetivo investigar como os mapas conceituais auxiliam na avaliação da aprendizagem da disciplina Ciências da Natureza: Ciência, Cultura e Sociedade ofertada na Universidade de São Paulo para alunos ingressantes de diversos cursos de graduação (n = 64) durante o período de 2013.1 sobre o conteúdo de Mudanças Climáticas. Nas turmas avaliadas o mapa conceitual poderia ser utilizado como ferramenta de preparação para prova (MCPREP) como também era utilizado como parte da avaliação formal da disciplina (MC-AVAL). Essa pesquisa se constitui de três Estudos que investigam: 1. As diferenças de perfis de mapas conceituais obtidos na condição de MC-PREP x MCAVAL; 2. Se o grupo de alunos que fizeram MC-PREP tiveram MC-AVAL com perfil diferente daqueles que não fizeram; 3. A existência de uma correlação entre as características do MC-AVAL com o conhecimento declarativo dos estudantes. Os mapas conceituais foram avaliados considerando aspectos estruturais e semânticos. As metodologias das análises realizadas foram retiradas de trabalhos presente na literatura. Entre os aspectos semânticos estavam o uso de materiais instrucionais, a natureza das proposições, a presença de erros e a aderência a pergunta focal. Além dessas análises, foi verificada a presença de agrupamentos naturais que pudessem ser explicados com uso das categorias teóricas. A análise dos resultados indica que os mapas conceituais das condições MC-PREP e MC-AVAL são bastante distintas entre si, pois atendiam a objetivos educacionais diferentes. No Estudo 2 verificou-se que o MC-PREP não influenciou fortemente a elaboração do MC-AVAL, pois a diminuição da carga extrínseca provocada pela elaboração de MC-PREP não foi suficiente para mostrar diferenças entre os grupos, já que ambos estavam altamente treinados na técnica de mapeamento conceitual. Por fim, no Estudo 3, o principal fator correlacionando o conhecimento declarativo com a complexidade dos mapas conceituais foi o percentual de proposições apropriadas. As conclusões do trabalho são que a demanda de elaboração do mapa conceitual é realmente orientadora de produto, a elaboração de um mapa conceitual a mais em um grupo bem treinado na técnica não altera seu desempenho e o principal meio de avaliar os mapas conceituais deve ser a leitura de suas proposições constituintes. / Concept maps are graphical tools that allows the representation of the student\'s mental models. Due to this capacity, the concept map can be used as an assessement tool of knowledge. The use of this tool in the classroom generates loads in working memory which can be related to the content (intrinsic load) or how this feature is being used in the classroom (extrinsic load). This study aims to investigate how the concept maps help to assess learning in the Natural Science: Science, Culture and Society course offered at the University of São Paulo for students of various undergraduate courses (n = 64) during the 2013.1 on the content of climate change. In the course, conceptual map could be used as a preparation tool for test (CM-PREP) and was also used as part of the formal evaluation of the course (CM-EVAL). This research is composed of three studies that investigate: 1. Differences in conceptual maps profiles obtained on condition of CM-PREP x CMEVAL; 2. If the group of students who took CM-PREP had a different profile in CMAVAL of those who did not; 3. The existence of a correlation between CM-EVAL features with the declarative knowledge of students. Concept maps were evaluated considering structural and semantic aspects. The methodologies of analyzes are taken from other papers. Among the semantic aspects were the use of instructional materials, the nature of the propositions, the presence of errors and adhesion to focus question. In addition to these analyzes, it was verified the presence of natural groups that could be explained with the use of theoretical categories. Analysis of the results indicates that the conceptual maps of the CM-PREP and CM-EVAL conditions are quite distinct from each other as it catered to different educational goals. At the Study 2, it was found that the CM-PREP not strongly influenced the development of CM-EVAL, as the reduction of extrinsic charge caused by CM-PREP elaboration was not enough to show differences between the groups, since both were highly trained in conceptual mapping technique. Finally, in Study 3, the main factor correlating the declarative knowledge to the complexity of the conceptual maps was the percentage of appropriate propositions. We concluded that the demand of elaboration of the conceptual map is actually the guide to the type of conceptual map obtained, the elaboration of CM-PREP does not change in a well-trained group in the technique and the main method of assessing concept maps should be reading its propositions.

In recent years, research on embodied cognition has inspired a number of studies on multimedia learning and instructional psychology. However, in contrast to traditional research on education and multimedia learning, studies on embodied learning (i.e., focusing on bodily action and perception in the context of education) in some cases pose new problems for the measurement of cognitive load. This review provides an overview over recent studies on embodied learning in which cognitive load was measured using surveys, behavioral data, or physiological measures. The different methods are assessed in terms of their success in finding differences of cognitive load in embodied learning scenarios. At the same time, we highlight the most important challenges for researchers aiming to include these measures into their study designs. The main issues we identified are: (1) Subjective measures must be appropriately phrased to be useful for embodied learning; (2) recent findings indicate potentials as well as problematic aspects of dual-task measures; (3) the use of physiological measures offers great potential, but may require mobile equipment in the context of embodied scenarios; (4) meta-cognitive measures can be useful extensions of cognitive load measurement for embodied learning.

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Gestaltung von multimedialen Lernumgebungen und fokussiert die Fragestellung, unter welchen Bedingungen eine audiovisuelle Aufbereitung von Lernmaterialien lernförderlicher ist als eine rein visuelle. In der Multimedia-Forschung wird die Überlegenheit multimodaler Lernapplikationen in zahlreichen Studien belegt (Clark & Mayer, 2008). Die dabei gewonnenen Erkenntnisse werden unter dem so genannten Modalitätsprinzip zusammengefasst (Mayer, 2001). Es besagt, dass zur Erläuterung einer Abbildung der Text besser gesprochen anstatt geschrieben dargeboten werden sollte, da dies zu einer adäquateren Nutzung der begrenzten modalitätsspezifischen Kapazitäten führt und dadurch die kognitive Belastung reduziert wird. Dies stellt einen wesentlichen Einflussfaktor für den Lernprozess dar und wird in der Theorie der kognitiven Belastung (Sweller & Chandler, 1994) näher betrachtet. Allerdings gibt es auch abweichende Befunde, die gegen eine generelle Lernförderlichkeit audiovisueller Lernumgebungen sprechen (Stiller, 2007; Tabbers, 2002). Deswegen war es das Ziel der vorliegenden Forschungsarbeit, das Modalitätsprinzip weiter zu spezifizieren und u.a. den Einfluss individueller Faktoren zu untersuchen. Dazu wurden die aufgestellten Hypothesen in zwei Studien empirisch überprüft. In beiden Untersuchungen wurde die Art der Informationspräsentation manipuliert und vermutet, dass Lernende bei einer audiovisuellen Präsentation einen größeren Wissenszuwachs und eine geringere kognitive Belastung aufweisen als bei einer rein visuellen. Die kognitive Belastung wurde dabei unter Zuhilfenahme des Dual-Task Paradigmas erfasst, bei dem Lernende neben der primären Lernaufgabe parallel eine sekundäre Reaktionsaufgabe erfüllen mussten. In Studie 1 konnte der Modalitätseffekt nicht nachgewiesen werden. Es zeigten sich jedoch signifikante Unterschiede zwischen den zuerst präsentierten Überblicksseiten und den darauffolgenden Lernseiten mit Detailinformationen. Das wurde mit der Konstruktion eines neuen mentalen Modells erklärt. Deshalb wurde in Studie 2 die Sequenzierung des Lernmaterials manipuliert. Hier zeigte sich der Modalitätseffekt in den Reaktionszeiten, nicht aber im Wissenszuwachs. Dies wird zusammen mit den nicht eindeutigen Ergebnissen der individuellen Faktoren Modalitätspräferenz und räumliches Vorstellungsvermögen zum Abschluss der Arbeit kritisch diskutiert und Perspektiven für zukünftige Forschung aufgezeigt.

No description available.

Mixed reality (MR) technology is trending in various sectors at the present time. In MR applications, due to the interactions between two realities, the potential of experiencing Cognitive Overload is high. Hence, the present qualitative study has been conducted to broaden the understanding of Cognitive Load in MR interventions. Six participants were recruited for the study who were University students. The study was conducted with an activity, based on a car chasing scenario in police interventions. The participants were instructed to complete a questionnaire after the activity, which was designed based on Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), and thereafter semi-structured interviews were conducted. The data were analyzed through the Thematic Analysis method (TA), which resulted in generating three themes; Prevention of Intrinsic Load, Prevention of Extraneous Load, and Increase of Germane Load. Each theme was divided into categories, and the codes were generated and analyzed under the categories. Our findings elaborate on several elements that influence cognitive load in MR interactions. The major elements of our findings include; Expertise in operating HoloLens and MR, Prevention of Split-attention, Prioritizing and Grouping of information, Vigilance, Design of HoloLens and MR, and Comprehensibility. The study findings can be used in designing MR applications, especially for the use case of police interventions. Yet, we believe that further studies are needed to broaden the understanding of causes and prevention methods of Cognitive overload in MR interactions.

Die Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) postuliert, dass das Lernen neuer, komplexer Informationen mit einer Belastung des Arbeitsgedächtnisses des Lernenden einhergeht. Nachdem die Theorie erstmals 1988 von John Sweller postuliert wurde, arbeitete eine kleine Gruppe von Forschern an Universitäten in Australien und den Niederlanden an ihrer Weiterentwicklung. Sie entwickelte sich schnell zu einer der populärsten Theorien in der pädagogischen Psychologie und im Instruktionsdesign. Die CLT basiert auf Erkenntnissen der Kognitionspsychologie und geht davon aus, dass das Arbeitsgedächtnis nur eine begrenzte Anzahl von Informationselementen simultan verarbeiten kann, wodurch die Fähigkeit, neue Informationen zu verarbeiten, stark eingeschränkt ist. Auf der Grundlage der CLT wurden eine Reihe von Empfehlungen und Prinzipien abgeleitet, die den Lernenden helfen sollen, ihre verfügbaren kognitiven Ressourcen optimal für das Lernen zu nutzen, um Informationen in Form von Schemata in das Langzeitgedächtnis zu übertragen. Ziel ist es, eine Überlastung des Arbeitsgedächtnisses (d.h. eine kognitive Überlastung) zu vermeiden, da diese das Lernen behindern. Nach der Theorie sind drei Arten von kognitiver Belastung während des Lernens relevant. Während der Intrinsic Cognitive Load (ICL) die Komplexität der zu lernenden Informationen unter Berücksichtigung des Vorwissens des Lernenden beschreibt, wird der Extraneous Cognitive Load (ECL) durch die Gestaltung des Lernmaterials bestimmt, welcher sich negativ auf den Lernerfolg auswirken kann. Während ICL und ECL konzeptionell klar definiert sind, wird die Definition der dritten Belastungsart, des Germane Cognitive Load (GCL), innerhalb der CLT kontrovers diskutiert. In diesem Zusammenhang ist unklar, ob der GCL eine eigenständige Quelle kognitiver Belastung darstellt oder ob er sich lediglich auf die kognitiven Ressourcen bezieht, die der Lernende mental aufwendet, um Schemata aufzubauen. Daraus hat sich in den letzten Jahren eine Debatte darüber entwickelt, ob der GCL überhaupt ein Teil der CLT ist und ob es ausreicht, die kognitive Belastung während des Lernens mit dem ICL und dem ECL zu beschreiben. Auch die Annahme, dass die drei Arten unabhängig voneinander additiv zur Gesamtbelastung beitragen, wurde häufig in Frage gestellt. Neben den offenen theoretischen Fragen innerhalb der CLT stellt die Messung der verschiedenen Belastungsarten die größte Herausforderung für die Forschung dar. Latente Konstrukte wie die kognitive Belastung können nur indirekt gemessen werden, wodurch es umso wichtiger ist, die Reliabilität und Validität entsprechender Messungen zu überprüfen. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist dabei die multidimensionale Messung (d.h. die separate Messung der einzelnen Arten der kognitiven Belastung) sowie der optimale Zeitpunkt der Messung (d.h. während oder nach dem Lernen). Ziel dieser Dissertation ist es daher, die Chancen und Herausforderungen der Messung kognitiver Belastung zu diskutieren. Da die kognitive Belastung in der Praxis häufig mit Fragebögen gemessen wird, wird diese Erhebungsmethode in der vorliegenden Dissertation vorrangig betrachtet. So wurde in einer Metaanalyse überprüft, inwieweit die zu diesem Zeitpunkt verfügbaren Fragebögen in der Lage sind, die verschiedenen Arten kognitiver Belastung reliabel und valide zu messen. Dazu wurden experimentelle Studien aus dem Bereich des multimedialen Lernens herangezogen, in denen die CLT eine ganz wesentliche Rolle spielt. Darüber hinaus wurde aufgrund konzeptueller und psychometrischer Inkonsistenzen der verfügbaren Fragebögen ein neuer Fragebogen entwickelt und validiert, der vor allem den Lernenden helfen soll, besser zwischen den verschiedenen Arten der kognitiven Belastung zu unterscheiden. In einer experimentellen Studie wurde zudem untersucht, wie sich unterschiedliche Komplexitätsgrade innerhalb eines Lernmaterials auf die Gesamtbewertung der kognitiven Belastung durch den Lernenden auswirken. Damit verbunden war die Frage, ob sich Lernende einen Ankerpunkt (z.B. den ersten Eindruck) suchen, von dem aus sie das gesamte Lernmaterial hinsichtlich der kognitiven Belastung bewerten. Insgesamt zeigte sich, dass das Konstrukt der kognitiven Belastung mit hoher interner Konsistenz gemessen werden kann, wobei sich Einschränkungen hinsichtlich der Validität ergaben. So deuten die Korrelationen zwischen den einzelnen Arten der kognitiven Belastung darauf hin, dass die Lernenden nicht ausreichend zwischen ihnen differenzieren können. Dies gilt auch dann, wenn die Items im Fragebogen so formuliert sind, dass die Lernenden erkennen sollten, welche Art von kognitiver Belastung sie beurteilen sollen. Darüber hinaus spiegeln sich die theoretischen Annahmen der CLT nicht immer in den Messergebnissen wider. Es ist unklar, ob diese Ambivalenz auf theoretische Unzulänglichkeiten oder auf Messungenauigkeiten zurückzuführen ist. Forschende sollten ihre Messergebnisse vor diesem Hintergrund kritisch reflektieren. Da es sich bei der kognitiven Belastung um ein dynamisches Konstrukt handelt, dessen Intensität während des Lernprozesses stark variieren kann, werden die Forschenden dazu angehalten, die Messung zu geeigneten Zeitpunkten während des Lernprozesses durchzuführen. Basierend auf den Erkenntnissen dieser Dissertation werden Handlungsempfehlungen für den zukünftigen Einsatz von Fragebögen zur Messung kognitiver Belastung abgeleitet und theoretische Implikationen diskutiert.:Zusammenfassung 3 Summary 5 1 Introduction 7 2 Foundations of Cognitive Load Theory 9 2.1 Human Cognitive Architecture 9 2.2 Evolutionary Educational Psychology 12 2.3 The Construct of Cognitive Load 14 2.4 Types of Cognitive Load 16 3 Cognitive Load Theory in Multimedia Learning 22 4 Measuring Cognitive Load 25 4.1 Physiological Measures 25 4.2 Dual-task Approaches 26 4.3 Self-rating Scales 27 5 Conceptual and Psychometric Issues in Cognitive Load Research 31 5.1 Three-factor Model and Additivity Hypothesis 31 5.2 Reliable and Valid Measurement of Cognitive Load with Subjective Scales 33 5.3 Timing of Cognitive Load Measurement 36 6 Article 1: A systematic meta-analysis of the reliability and validity of subjective cognitive load questionnaires in experimental multimedia learning research 40 7 Article 2: Development and validation of a theory-based questionnaire to measure different types of cognitive load 98 8 Article 3: The distorting role of primacy effects when reporting cognitive load in a learning material with varying complexities 136 9 Discussion 193 9.1 Contributions of this Thesis 193 9.2 Limitations and Future Directions 196 9.3 Conclusion 197 10 References 198 Danksagung 208 / Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) postulates that learning new, complex information places a burden on the learner’s working memory. After the theory was first postulated by John Sweller in 1988, a small group of researchers at universities in Australia and the Netherlands worked to develop it further. It quickly became one of the most popular theories in educational psychology and instructional design. CLT is based on findings in cognitive psychology and posits that working memory can only process a limited number of information elements simultaneously, severely limiting its ability to process new information. Based on CLT, a set of recommendations and principles has been derived to help learners make optimal use of their available cognitive resources for learning in order to transfer information to long-term memory in the form of schemata. The goal is to avoid overloading working memory (i.e., cognitive overload), which impedes learning. According to the theory, three types of cognitive load are relevant during learning. While intrinsic cognitive load (ICL) describes the complexity of the information to be learned, taking into account the learner's prior knowledge, extraneous cognitive load (ECL) is determined by the design of the learning material and can have a negative impact on learning success. While ICL and ECL are conceptually well-defined, the definition of the third type of load, germane cognitive load (GCL), is controversial within CLT. In this context, it is unclear whether GCL is a source of cognitive load in its own right or whether it simply refers to the cognitive resources that the learner mentally expends to build schemata. This has led to a debate in recent years as to whether GCL is a part of CLT at all, and whether it is sufficient to use the ICL and ECL to describe cognitive load during learning. The assumption that the three types additively and independently contribute to the total cognitive load has also been questioned. In addition to the open theoretical questions within CLT, the measurement of the different types of cognitive load represents the greatest challenge for research. Latent constructs such as cognitive load can only be measured indirectly, making it all the more important to examine the reliability and validity of such measures. Of particular importance is multidimensional measurement (i.e., measuring each type of cognitive load separately) and the optimal timing of measurement (i.e., during or after learning). Thus, the purpose of this thesis is to discuss the opportunities and challenges of measuring cognitive load. Since cognitive load is often measured in practice with questionnaires, this thesis prioritizes this survey method. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted in order to examine the extent to which questionnaires available at this time are able to reliably and validly measure the different types of cognitive load. For this purpose, experimental studies from the field of multimedia learning, in which CLT plays a very important role, were used. In addition, due to conceptual and psychometric inconsistencies of available questionnaires, a new questionnaire was developed and validated, mainly to help learners better differentiate between different types of cognitive load. An experimental study was also conducted to test how different levels of complexity within a learning material affect the learner’s overall assessment of cognitive load. Related to this was the question of whether learners seek an anchor point (e.g., first impression) from which they evaluate the entire learning material in terms of cognitive load. Overall, it was found that the construct of cognitive load can be measured with a high degree of internal consistency, although there are limitations in terms of validity. For example, the correlations between the different types of cognitive load indicate that the learners cannot sufficiently differentiate between them. This is true even though the items in the questionnaire are worded in such a way that learners should be able to identify which type of cognitive load they are being asked to assess. Furthermore, the theoretical assumptions of CLT are not always reflected in the measurement results. It is unclear whether this ambivalence is due to theoretical shortcomings or measurement inaccuracies. In light of this, researchers should critically reflect on their measurement results. Because cognitive load is a dynamic construct whose intensity can vary widely during learning, researchers are encouraged to measure it at appropriate times during the learning process. Based on the findings of this thesis, recommendations for the future use of questionnaires to measure cognitive load are derived and theoretical implications are discussed.:Zusammenfassung 3 Summary 5 1 Introduction 7 2 Foundations of Cognitive Load Theory 9 2.1 Human Cognitive Architecture 9 2.2 Evolutionary Educational Psychology 12 2.3 The Construct of Cognitive Load 14 2.4 Types of Cognitive Load 16 3 Cognitive Load Theory in Multimedia Learning 22 4 Measuring Cognitive Load 25 4.1 Physiological Measures 25 4.2 Dual-task Approaches 26 4.3 Self-rating Scales 27 5 Conceptual and Psychometric Issues in Cognitive Load Research 31 5.1 Three-factor Model and Additivity Hypothesis 31 5.2 Reliable and Valid Measurement of Cognitive Load with Subjective Scales 33 5.3 Timing of Cognitive Load Measurement 36 6 Article 1: A systematic meta-analysis of the reliability and validity of subjective cognitive load questionnaires in experimental multimedia learning research 40 7 Article 2: Development and validation of a theory-based questionnaire to measure different types of cognitive load 98 8 Article 3: The distorting role of primacy effects when reporting cognitive load in a learning material with varying complexities 136 9 Discussion 193 9.1 Contributions of this Thesis 193 9.2 Limitations and Future Directions 196 9.3 Conclusion 197 10 References 198 Danksagung 208