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To regulate and facilitate are the main functions of legal rules. These purposes are achieved by a harmonised legal system by which the law becomes identical in numerous jurisdictions. The process to unify the law of sale internationally started in the 1920s and culminated, in 1988, in the implementation of the CISG. This Convention intends to provide clarity for most international sales transactions by regulating the formation of contracts, and the rights and obligations of the seller and the buyer resulting from the contract. The CISG has these days enjoyed much ratification and influenced a number of legislation reforms worldwide. Despite the role it played during the drafting process of the CISG, the DRC has not yet ratified it. Instead, the country continued to rely, until recently, on colonial legislations which had become out-dated, and inadequate to meet modern international sales contracts requirements. The situation appears to have been improved a year ago as the effect of the adoption of OHADA law whose Commercial Act is largely inspired by the CISG. Because the introduction of OHADA law in the DRC is very recent, this study intends to assess the current state of Congolese sales law by comparing it with the CISG and South African law, which is non-CISG but modernised. The comparative study aims at establishing whether current Congolese law, as amended by OHADA law, is sufficient or has shortcomings; if it has some, it aims to identify those shortcomings, and make suggestions for their improvements. After discussion, it has been discovered that the ratification of OHADA law has significantly improved Congolese domestic sales law. Given that there remain certain unresolved shortcomings in Congolese international sales law, however, the study ends by a proposal for the accession of the DRC to the CISG in order to fill them. / Mercantile Law / LLD

To regulate and facilitate are the main functions of legal rules. These purposes are achieved by a harmonised legal system by which the law becomes identical in numerous jurisdictions. The process to unify the law of sale internationally started in the 1920s and culminated, in 1988, in the implementation of the CISG. This Convention intends to provide clarity for most international sales transactions by regulating the formation of contracts, and the rights and obligations of the seller and the buyer resulting from the contract. The CISG has these days enjoyed much ratification and influenced a number of legislation reforms worldwide. Despite the role it played during the drafting process of the CISG, the DRC has not yet ratified it. Instead, the country continued to rely, until recently, on colonial legislations which had become out-dated, and inadequate to meet modern international sales contracts requirements. The situation appears to have been improved a year ago as the effect of the adoption of OHADA law whose Commercial Act is largely inspired by the CISG. Because the introduction of OHADA law in the DRC is very recent, this study intends to assess the current state of Congolese sales law by comparing it with the CISG and South African law, which is non-CISG but modernised. The comparative study aims at establishing whether current Congolese law, as amended by OHADA law, is sufficient or has shortcomings; if it has some, it aims to identify those shortcomings, and make suggestions for their improvements. After discussion, it has been discovered that the ratification of OHADA law has significantly improved Congolese domestic sales law. Given that there remain certain unresolved shortcomings in Congolese international sales law, however, the study ends by a proposal for the accession of the DRC to the CISG in order to fill them. / Mercantile Law / LL. D.

This article addresses the question of whether extreme weather events should form the basis for individuals or even the States, may be exempted from complying with its legal obligations.The old, but still very viable institution of force majeure can empower both companies and nations to absolve themselves of their responsibilities and duties. However, in a world where human-induced climate change is proven, could we say that such disasters are truly«natural»? Does it make sense, from a legal and factual matter, that they continue to allow the parties to be exempt from liability when modern science has shown that in all probability people, not some enigmatic power, have caused most universally of the problems that hold us harmless looking?Force majeure is based on the idea that the «man» somehow is separate from «nature». This article challenges this idea and argues that, in many cases, no longer makes sense to apply the institution of force majeure. At least, judges should be very careful in doing so for reasons of public policy and allocation of risks. In addition, the contracting parties must have enough caution to claim that they may be able to exempt themselves from future liability clauses appealing «force majeure». / Este artículo aborda la pregunta sobre si los eventos de clima extremo deben servir de base para que los particulares o, incluso los Estados, puedan eximirse de cumplir con sus obligaciones legales.La antigua, pero aún muy viable, institución de la fuerza mayor, puede facultar tanto a las empresas como a los Estados-Nación a eximirse de sus responsabilidades y deberes. Sin embargo, en un mundo donde el cambio climático antropogénico está probado,¿podríamos decir que tales desastres son verdaderamente «naturales»? ¿Acaso tiene sentido, desde un punto de vista legal y fáctico, que se les siga permitiendo a las partes eximirse de responsabilidad legal cuando la ciencia moderna ha demostrado con toda probabilidad que, las personas -no algún misterioso poder universal- han ocasionado la mayoría de los problemas por los que buscamos eximirnos de responsabilidad?La fuerza mayor se basa en la idea de que el «hombre», de alguna manera, se encuentra separado de la «naturaleza». Este artículo cuestiona esta idea y argumenta que, en muchos casos, ya no tiene sentido aplicar la institución de la fuerza mayor. Al menos, los jueces deben ser muy cuidadosos al hacerlo por razones de política pública y asignación de riesgos, así como las partes contratantes deben tener la suficiente precaución al pensar o pretender que pueden ser capaces de eximirse de responsabilidad futura invocando cláusulas de «fuerza mayor».

「中華人民共和國勞動合同法」於2008年1月1日施行，導致企業用人成本提高，於是企業開始採取一些變革策略，這些策略包括1.全盤接受2.廠區內遷3.招聘退休人員4.自動化及工作外包5.遇缺不補或凍結人事6.要求員工辭職7.裁員8.勞動契約到期不續簽9.提前簽定勞動契約10.轉移員工至派遣公司11.歇業12.關廠13.外移14.棄廠潛逃等。本研究依照「接受法令」的程度，將14項變革策略分為『接受法令』、『接受但有措施因應』、『閃躲法令規定』及『不接受規定』等四類，總計收集大陸台商及員工有效樣本168份，並進行這四類在員工心理契約、組織承諾、組織核心競爭力、及組織績效量表上的信效度分析、變異數分析、及事後考驗，希冀可以作為政策發展者及企業決策者之重要參考。 / 本研究結果顯示：1.各量表之信效度頗高，在心理契約、組織核心競爭力、與組織績效方面，『接受法令』組顯著地優於『閃躲法令規定』組。2.在心理契約及組織績效方面，『接受法令』組的分數也顯著地比『接受但有措施因應』組及『不接受規定』組為佳。3.若將『接受法令』、『接受但有措施因應』歸為接受組，『閃躲法令規定』及『不接受規定』歸為拒絕組時，接受與拒絕組在員工心理契約、組織核心競爭力、及組織績效皆有顯著的差異。最後，研究者嘗試提出「變革策略之競爭力模式」。 / 總而言之，本研究結果支持心理契約、組織承諾對組織核心競爭力、及組織績效的影響，且亦支持組織核心競爭力對組織績效的影響。另外，建議後續研究者或可配合人力銀行或中國學術研究單位，再進一步進行縱貫性研究。最後本研究提出後續學術研究與實務應用之建議。 / "Labor Contract Law" in People's Republic of China was implemented on January 1, 2008. Since this Law, the corporate was increased personnel costs and started taking some change strategies. These change strategies including: 1.Entirely accept 2.Moving the factories to inland 3.Recruiting retirees 4.Automation and job-outsourcing 5. Recruiting freeze 6.Asking Staff for resignation 7.Layoff 8.Contratct un-renewed 9.Signing contracts before the Law was implemented 10.Transfering staffs to temporary worker services 11.Shutting down the business 12.Closing factories 13.Relocation 14. Abandoning factories and absconding. According to the degrees of “acceptance of the Law”, this study divided these change strategies into four categories, including “Accept”, “Accept, but taking actions”, “Dodging the Law by taking actions”, and “Un-accept”. / This study collected 168 samples, and used ANOVA and post-tests to know how these strategies can influence on employees’ psychological contract, employees’ organizational commitment, organizational core competitiveness and organizational performance. / According to the results of this study: 1.the reliability and validity of the scales were high, and the scores of “Accept” in employees’ psychological contract, organizational core competitiveness, and organizational performance were significantly higher than the scores of “Dodging the Law by taking actions”; 2.the scores of “Accept” in employees’ psychological contract and organizational performance were significantly higher than the scores of “Accept, but taking actions” and “Un-accept”; 3.when author divided these four categories into accept group and refuse group, there are significant difference between the scores of employees’ psychological contract, organizational core competitiveness, and organizational performance. Finally, “Organization change of competitiveness model” was proposed. / In summary, this study showed that employees’ psychological contract and organizational commitment do have the influence to organizational core competitiveness and organizational performance. It also showed that the organizational core competitiveness can influence the organizational performance. In conclusion, the model of this study and substantial suggestions were proposed for follow-up academic studies and practical applications.

<p>Даља хармонизација међународног трговинског права је неопходна. Међутим, поставља се питање којим методима вршити овај процес. Значајан и несумњив допринос су у том погледу остварили тзв. hard law извори (извори тврдог права), пре свега међународне конвенције. Ипак, услед њихових недостатака отворен је простор за употребу алтернативних видова нормативних метода.<br />Предмет анализе у докторској дисертацији је допринос тзв. soft law инструмената (инструмената меког права) процесу хармонизације међународног трговинског права. С обзиром на то да се ради са теоријског гледишта о проблематичном и неуједначено дефинисаном феномену, истраживање је сконцентрисано на утврђивање карактеристика, те предности и мана коришћења ових инструмената. Наиме, soft law акти су несанкционисана правила која производе значајне de facto правне ефекте чиме доприносе процесу хармонизације права на међународном нивоу, и значајно на нивоу Европске уније у којој се врши главница пројеката ове врсте.<br />Централно место у анализи заузимају Принципи UNIDROIT за међународне трговинске уговоре и Начела европског уговорног права, те судска и арбитражна пракса која се односи на примену ових прописа меког права.<br />Након уводних разматрања, рад се излаже у два дела. У првом делу анализира се сложеност савременог система међународног права која је последица, између осталог, разноликости нормативних техника које се користе при његовом стварању и све већег значаја међународних организација у овим процесима. Затим се на основу мноштва теоријских ставова излажу карактеристике, врсте, функције soft law аката, те поређење са hard law прописима. У другом делу дисертације наглашава се потреба интензивније хармонизације међународног трговинског права, те начини на које се овај процес постиже кроз употребу soft law аката. Могу се користити као модел извори међународним и националним легислативним телима, као меродавно уговорно право, у поступцима пред судовима и поготово арбитражама и као важно средство тумачења и попуњавања правних празнина међународног униформног и националних права. На крају, у закључним разматрањима износе се закључци на основу спроведеног истраживања.</p> / <p>Dalja harmonizacija međunarodnog trgovinskog prava je neophodna. Međutim, postavlja se pitanje kojim metodima vršiti ovaj proces. Značajan i nesumnjiv doprinos su u tom pogledu ostvarili tzv. hard law izvori (izvori tvrdog prava), pre svega međunarodne konvencije. Ipak, usled njihovih nedostataka otvoren je prostor za upotrebu alternativnih vidova normativnih metoda.<br />Predmet analize u doktorskoj disertaciji je doprinos tzv. soft law instrumenata (instrumenata mekog prava) procesu harmonizacije međunarodnog trgovinskog prava. S obzirom na to da se radi sa teorijskog gledišta o problematičnom i neujednačeno definisanom fenomenu, istraživanje je skoncentrisano na utvrđivanje karakteristika, te prednosti i mana korišćenja ovih instrumenata. Naime, soft law akti su nesankcionisana pravila koja proizvode značajne de facto pravne efekte čime doprinose procesu harmonizacije prava na međunarodnom nivou, i značajno na nivou Evropske unije u kojoj se vrši glavnica projekata ove vrste.<br />Centralno mesto u analizi zauzimaju Principi UNIDROIT za međunarodne trgovinske ugovore i Načela evropskog ugovornog prava, te sudska i arbitražna praksa koja se odnosi na primenu ovih propisa mekog prava.<br />Nakon uvodnih razmatranja, rad se izlaže u dva dela. U prvom delu analizira se složenost savremenog sistema međunarodnog prava koja je posledica, između ostalog, raznolikosti normativnih tehnika koje se koriste pri njegovom stvaranju i sve većeg značaja međunarodnih organizacija u ovim procesima. Zatim se na osnovu mnoštva teorijskih stavova izlažu karakteristike, vrste, funkcije soft law akata, te poređenje sa hard law propisima. U drugom delu disertacije naglašava se potreba intenzivnije harmonizacije međunarodnog trgovinskog prava, te načini na koje se ovaj proces postiže kroz upotrebu soft law akata. Mogu se koristiti kao model izvori međunarodnim i nacionalnim legislativnim telima, kao merodavno ugovorno pravo, u postupcima pred sudovima i pogotovo arbitražama i kao važno sredstvo tumačenja i popunjavanja pravnih praznina međunarodnog uniformnog i nacionalnih prava. Na kraju, u zaključnim razmatranjima iznose se zaključci na osnovu sprovedenog istraživanja.</p> / <p>Further harmonization of International commercial law is necessary. However, there is a question of methods to be used during this process. So-called hard law sources, especially international conventions, had a significant and undoubtful contribution, but their flaws opened some space for using alternative means of normative methods.<br />The subject of this dissertation&rsquo;s analysis is the contribution of so-called soft law instruments to the process of harmonization of International commercial law. Considering the fact that the subject matter that is being theorized about is a difficult and an unevenly defined phenomenon, the research was focused on determining characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of using those instruments. Namely, soft law acts are non-sanctioned rules, which produce important de facto legal effects, contributing to the process of harmonization of the law at the international level, especially at the level of The European union in which the majority of this kind of projects is realized.<br />The UNIDROIT Principles for commercial contract law and Principles of European contract law, court and arbitration practice dealing with applying those soft law regulations are the center of this analysis.<br />After introductory considerations, this thesis is divided into two parts. In the first one, the subject of analysis is the complexity of modern international law system, which is a consequence of, among other things, diversity of normative techniques used in the making of the system, and ever growing importance of international organizations involved in those processes. After that, characteristics, types and functions of soft law acts, and their comparison to hard law regulations, are being presented, all based on a large quantity of theoretical standpoints. The second part of the dissertation emphasizes the need for intensifying the harmonization of International commercial law, and presents the ways to achieve that through using soft law acts. Those acts can be used as model sources to international and national legislation bodies, as law governing the contract, in processes before courts and especially arbitration tribunals and as an important mean of interpretation and supplement to both international uniform and national law. At the end, final considerations present conclusions about the research conducted.</p>

La question des rapports entretenus entre le contrat de travail et le droit commun évoque immédiatement la revendication autonomiste. Il ne s’agit pourtant pas de revendiquer mais de mesurer la propension à l’autonomie du droit du travail à l’égard du droit commun des contrats maintes fois questionnée et toujours renouvelée. Précisément, cet essai de mesure révèle un résultat profondément nuancé. Ainsi, l’autonomie ne saurait être absolument reconnue en raison des nombreuses manifestations de la soumission du contrat de travail au droit commun. Elle ne peut cependant pas être totalement contredite en raison de l’indéniable émancipation de celui-ci envers celui-là. Pour comprendre cette apparente contradiction, il convient de diviser la matière. L’approche ne peut être globale et l’étude doit porter sur des objets distincts. Le régime du contrat de travail oscille en effet entre deux pôles : autonomie et dépendance. Relativement à certaines questions, l’émancipation à l’égard du droit commun est quasi-totale. Relativement à d’autres, la soumission est de mise. Plus encore, le résultat de ces recherches conduit à affirmer que l’autonomie et la dépendance ne constituent pas deux domaines étanches délimités par une frontière nette. Ainsi, la dépendance doit être reconnue lorsque le droit commun est préservé ; l’autonomie apparaît déjà, cependant, dès lors que le droit commun est adapté. Elle est plus intense encore lorsque le droit commun est déformé, et atteint son ultime degré lorsque le droit commun est évincé. Se constate ainsi une sorte de continuum qui s’étend entre ces deux pôles – dépendance et autonomie – et sur lequel s’ordonnent les questions relatives au contrat de travail. Ainsi, lorsqu’on mesure les rapports entre le contrat de travail et le droit commun des contrats, tout est affaire de degrés, de proximité et d’éloignement corrélatif à l’égard de ces deux extrémités du spectre. / When wondering about the relationship between employment contract and general law, autonomist claim is usually immediately brought up. Yet, the point is not to claim, but to define the propensity to autonomy of labor law in regard of general contract law, many times asked, and always renewed. Precisely, this measurement essay reveals deeply nuanced results. Thus autonomy could not be definitely accepted due to many manifestations of the subservience of employment contract to general law. However it cannot be totally contradicted because of the incontestable emancipation of the employment contract from the general law. To understand this apparent contradiction, the subject must be divided. The approach cannot be global and the study must deal with distinct subjects. The employment contract system is indeed oscillating between two poles: autonomy and dependence. Emancipation towards general law is almost complete when considering some questions. Concerning some other questions, subservience can only be noted. Moreover, the results of this research are leading to affirm that autonomy and dependence are not two distinct areas, separated by a hermetic border. Hence, dependence must be admitted when general law is preserved, though autonomy already appears when general law is appropriate. It is more intense when general law is distorted, and reaches its ultimate degree when general law is ousted. A kind of continuum is observed between these two poles – subservience and autonomy – on which questions about employment contract are organized. Consequently, when measuring the relationship between employment contract and general contract law, everything is a matter of degrees, proximity and distance correlative to these two extremities of the spectrum.

L’objectif de cette étude est d’analyser comparativement le droit contractuel d’auteur dans quatre systèmes juridiques de l’Union Européenne, à savoir les droits allemand, anglais, espagnol et français, et de s’interroger sur les perspectives d’harmonisation européenne en la matière. Seront tout d’abord explorés les points communs et les particularités des dits systèmes à propos d’un certain nombre d’éléments fondamentaux du droit contractuel d’auteur ; ensuite seront formulées des propositions de rapprochement pouvant constituer une base de discussion dans le cas d’une éventuelle harmonisation européenne. L’étude prend en compte le droit d’auteur, le droit commun des contrats, le droit des biens, le droit commun de la personnalité, les droits fondamentaux, la théorie du droit comparé, et certains projets scientifiques européens. / The objective of the present study is the comparative analysis of contract law relating to copyright in four legal systems of the European Union, which are German, English, Spanish and French law, and to analyse the resulting prospects of European harmonization on this subject. First, the similarities and specificities of the aforementioned legal systems will be explored on a certain number of fundamental issues of copyright contract law. Then, propositions of convergence will be formulated, which could provide a basis for discussions in the case of a possible European harmonization. The study considers aspects from copyright law, general contract law, property law, personality rights, fundamental rights, comparative law theory, as well as some European scientific projects.

En dépit du rôle croissant concédé aux volontés individuelles en droit des personneset de la famille, les phénomènes de volonté saisis par cette branche du droit pâtissent d’uneconstruction juridique lacunaire. Les liens avec la théorie de l’acte juridique sont peuexplorés ou n’apparaissent qu’ à travers le prisme déformant de l’approche institutionnelleet légaliste qui est généralement adoptée.En rupture avec le mythe de l’autonomie du droit des personnes et de la famille, cettethèse entend démontrer l’apport de cette branche du droit à la théorie générale de l’actejuridique.Il est possible de dépasser les spécificités apparentes des phénomènes de volontérencontrés en recourant à une théorie moderne de l’acte juridique. Fondée sur un principede causalité décrivant le lien permanent entre les volontés et des données objectives,façonnée par un ensemble de « techniques », la théorie générale peut être tantôtperfectionnée, tantôt enrichie, sous l’influence du droit des personnes et de la famille.De tout ceci, il résulte que le droit commun des contrats a vocation à s’appliquer, aumoins subsidiairement, dans le cadre des techniques « initiales », analogues à cellesconsacrées par la théorie du contrat. Quant aux techniques « intégrées » qui révèlent lesréelles originalités de l’acte juridique personnel ou familial, elles ne dérogent pas à lathéorie générale et sont même susceptibles de tirer profit de la transversalité de cettedernière. En tout cas, se dessine un droit spécialisé de l’acte juridique qui mériterait d’êtreconçu comme tel aussi bien par la doctrine que par les praticiens. / Despite the increasing role granted to individual intent in the law of personsand family, the phenomena of intent as grasped by this body of law suffer from a deficientlegal construct. The links with the theory of the legal act are little explored or emerge onlythrough the distorting prism of the institutional and legalistic approach which is generallyadopted.Breaking with the myth of the autonomy of the law of persons and family, this thesiswill seek to demonstrate the contribution made by this branch of law to the general theoryof the legal act.It is possible to go beyond the apparent specificity of the phenomena of intent byusing a modern theory of the legal act. Based on a principle of causality describing thepermanent link between intent and objective data, shaped by a set of "techniques", thegeneral theory is sometimes improved, sometimes enhanced under the influence of the lawof persons and family.From all this, it follows that the common law of contract is intended to apply, atleast alternatively, in the context of “initial” techniques, similar to those enshrined in thetheory of contract. As for "integrated" techniques, which show the real distinctiveness of thepersonal or family legal act, they do not derogate from the general theory and are evenlikely to benefit from its transversality. In any case, a specialised law emerges from thelegal act that ought to be conceived as such both by doctrine and practitioners.