Upphandling är en central del för att styra statliga resurser och hur de allokeras. Syftet är att förklara avtalsprecision av komplexa byggentreprenader. För att uppnå syftet kommer vi att studera byggprojekt där upphandlingar är utvecklade. Studie 1 besvarar en teoretisk hypotes om att stora projekt skapar fler ÄTA-arbeten. Hypotesen testas med registerdata från en offentlig myndighets interna projektdatabas. Studie 2 söker förklaringar till varför stora projekt driver ÄTA-arbeten. Förklaringar kommer från intervjuer med projektledare och entreprenörer. Studie 3 testas sex olika förklaringar vi benämner post-hoc hypoteser (PHH) som bygger på etablerade begrepp. Testet bygger på enkätdata för beställare och entreprenörer. Den interna projektdatabasen innehöll 486 infrastrukturprojekt (Studie 1). Baserad på projektdatabasen valdes fyra projekt ut för vidare analys. Totalt intervjuades fyra beställare och två entreprenörer kopplat till de utvalda projekten (Studie 2). Totalt deltog 208 respondenter i enkäten varav 87 beställare, 116 entreprenörer och 5 underentreprenörer som kompletterades av två externa entreprenörer (Studie 3).  Resultatet från Studie 1 ger indikation på att dokumentationen, uppföljningen och redovisningen är bristfällig. Detta bekräftades av intervjuerna i Studie 2. I Studie 3 fann vi att projekteringen är bristfällig i stora projekt där parterna agerar missvisande. Resultatet visar på att ÄTA-arbeten drivs av ofullständig projektering, person och ledarskap och av en medveten affärsmodell. Genom bättre dokumentation, uppföljning och redovisning skapas bättre avtalsprecision i upphandlingar och bidrar till meningsfulla processer och en träffsäkrare resursallokering. / Procurement is a key part of controlling government resources and how they are allocated. The purpose of this thesis is to explain the contractual precision of complex construction contracts. In order to achieve our objective, we will study construction projects where the procurement is well developed. We pursue this objective based on three studies. Study 1 answers a theoretical hypothesis that large projects create more cost overruns/error. The hypothesis is tested on a project database which is an internal register data from a public bureau. Study 2 seeks explanations as to why large projects drive cost overruns. Explanations come from interviews with project managers and contractors. Study 3 tests six different explanations we refer to post-hoc hypotheses (PHH) based on established concepts. The test is based on survey data for clients and contractors. The project database contained 486 infrastructure projects (Study 1). Based on the project database, four projects were selected for further analysis. A total of four clients and two contractors were interviewed in connection with the selected projects (Study 2). A total of 208 respondents participated in the survey, of which 87 clients, 116 contractors and 5 subcontractors were supplemented by two external contractors (Study 3). The result from study 1 indicates that the documentation, follow-up and reporting are inadequate and confirmed much of the findings in Study 2. In Study 3 we found that the planning is inadequate in large projects and often misleading. The result shows that cost overruns/error is driven by person and leadership, incomplete planning and a conscious business model. Through better documentation, follow-up and accounting, better contractual precision is created in procurement and contributes to meaningful processes and more accurate resource allocation.

The doctoral thesis deals with an analysis and comparison of the effective protective forms for construction contracts from the perspective of the investor/contracting authority in public construction work orders according to Act No. 134/2016 Coll., on Public Procurement. The theoretical part includes the risk management of construction projects with regard to the management of the business risk. The functions of protective forms within the project life cycle are described. The legal standards and regulations related to the procurement process and the contract management between the client and the main contractor are presented. International legal standards used for construction projects in the Czech Republic and abroad are mentioned. The aim of the thesis is to investigate the current situation and to create a model of management of business risk as a methodical practical approach for the public investor. Quantitative research of the protective forms in the contracts for works was conducted. The research data consisted of a database of selected public works contracts published on the public profiles of the contracting authorities during the performance phase of contracts during the years 2011–2018. Within the data analysis, a structured database of inputs and the used protective forms was created according to the documentation of the construction work orders. Furthermore, the relationship between the estimated value of the contract and the contract price was examined. Based on the data analysis and the benchmark study the model of management of business risk was created. To optimize the selection of protective instruments in works contracts, a portfolio of effective protective forms and their recommended parameters was proposed. The quantitative analysis was complemented by the questionnaire survey method and the structured interviews with the public sector representatives. The results of the research were compared with current international practice.

This diploma thesis deals with the topic of preparation and management of a construction contract to manage and maintain roads. The aim is to analyze the management of the selected construction contract, the suggestion of my own solution to the problem and the generalization of the knowledge for managing similar projects.

Le présent mémoire est divisé en deux parties. La première, un peu plus théorique, se veut un bref constat des problèmes reliés à l’octroi des contrats municipaux au fil du temps ainsi qu’un rappel des règles actuelles en matière d’attribution des contrats. La seconde partie porte sur les bonnes pratiques à adopter lors d’un appel d’offres, les zones grises et les erreurs à éviter lors du processus menant à l’adjudication d’un contrat. Dans un premier temps, l’auteure traite de la rédaction de l’appel d’offres, de sa publication, de l’ouverture des soumissions et des formalités à suivre afin de déterminer la soumission devant être retenue. Par la suite, elle aborde les concepts de division de contrat et d’avis d’intention. Finalement, le dernier chapitre relate les différents mécanismes de plaintes dans le milieu municipal. À la fin du mémoire, six (6) annexes viennent illustrer, sous forme de tableaux ou de schémas, différents concepts et étapes clés en matière de gestion contractuelle. / This master’s thesis is divided into two parts. The first one is a bit more theoretical and is intended to be a brief overview of the problems linked to the awarding of municipal contracts over time, as well as a reminder of the current rules governing the awarding of contracts. The second part informs on the best practices to be followed during a call for tenders, the gray areas, and the errors to avoid during the process leading to the awarding of a contract. First, the author addresses the writing of the call for tenders, its publication, the opening of tenders, and the formalities to be followed in order to determine the tender to be selected. Next, she discusses the concepts of contract division and notice of intention. The last chapter describes the various complaint mechanisms in the municipal sector. At the end of the thesis, six (6) appendices illustrate, using tables or diagrams, various key concepts and stages in terms of contractual management.

Sweden has the ambition to be the world leading country leveraging the opportunities of digitalization in the healthcare sector. In parallel, the Swedish Research Council highlights that conducting more clinical studies is essential to improve the healthcare. Henceforth, considering the need for increased operational efficiency as an enabler for increased clinical activity, a digital transformation of the industry was identified as a potential catalyst. The study thus utilizes a cognitive work analysis framework to investigate the potential benefits and risks of digitizing the functional operations at a contract management department for clinical studies at a Swedish university hospital. The aim is thereafter to determine the appropriate properties necessary to consider managing a digital transformation. The analysis identified three key benefits from a digitization. 1) transparent data sharing, 2) standardized contract management and 3) efficient operations. These three aspects are currently insufficient at the department hindering the objective of increasing the clinical activity. The study found that a digital transformation would be suitable in order to mitigate these insufficiencies and consequently facilitating the achievement of the objectives. Thereafter, the study found the key properties to consider managing a digital transformation to be interoperability, quality, adaptability and usability. In addition, safety was found critical to be considered in the transformation as the contract management department acts under rigid laws and regulations on ethics and patient security with which digitized processes must comply. The results contribute to the field of cognitive systems engineering. However, the study has limitations regarding the reliability and generalizability of the results. The findings are based on a single case study, which may not be representative for the industry in general nor for university hospitals in particular. In addition, since no actual digitalization effort was performed at the organization during the study, appropriate properties key to consider in the digital transformation are speculative by design. Consequently, it is necessary to study an actual implementation process in future research and whether the proposed considerations are sufficient in order to realize the suggested benefits of such a digitalization. / Sverige har ett övergripande mål att vara det ledande landet när det gäller att dra nytta av digitaliseringens möjligheter inom sjukvården. Dessutom understryker Vetenskapsrådet att det är centralt för förbättrad sjukvård att öka antalet kliniska studier i landet. Följaktligen, med tanke på behovet av en ökad operativ effektivitet, identifierade författarna det av intresse att studera digitalisering av branschen. Studien tillämpar således ett kognitivt ramverk för arbetsanalys i syfte att undersöka de potentiella fördelarna eller riskerna med att digitalisera den funktionella verksamheten hos en kontrakthanteringsavdelning för kliniska studier vid ett stort svenskt universitetssjukhus. Målsättningen är därefter att ta fram lämpliga egenskaper som är nödvändiga att beakta vid hanteringen av den digitala transformationen. Kontrakthanteringsavdelningen fanns att inneha brister i sina arbetsprocesser gällande transparens, effektivitet och standardisering vilket hindrar målet avseende ökad klinisk aktivitet. Studien visade att en digital transformation skulle vara nödvändig för att motverka dessa brister, samt för att möjliggöra en uppskalning av organisationen. Ett annat specifikt förbättringsområde som skulle underlättas av en digital transformation visade sig vara förbättrad synkronisering mellan arbetsprocesser. Vidare fann studien att de mest kritiska egenskaperna nödvändiga att beakta, vid hantering av en digital transformation, skulle vara interoperabilitet, kvalitet, anpassningsförmåga och användbarhet. Dessutom är säkerhet en egenskap som visat sig vara kritisk att beakta vid digitalisering då kontrakthanteringsavdelningen lyder under stränga lagar och föreskrifter beträffande etik och patientsäkerhet. Resultaten bidrar till forskningsområdet cognitive systems engineering. Studien har dock vissa begränsningar gällande tillförlitlighet och generaliserbarhet. Resultaten är baserade på en enfallstudie, som eventuellt inte är representativ för branschen i allmänhet eller för universitetssjukhus i synnerhet. Dessutom, då ingen digitaliseringsinsats utfördes under studien är de viktiga egenskaperna att beakta i den digitala transformationen enbart spekulativa. Således är det i framtida forskning viktigt att studera en faktisk implementation och då studera om föreslagna beaktanden är tillräckliga för att utnyttja digitaliseringens möjligheter.

Artificial Intelligence technology has become increasingly important from a business perspective. In strategic sourcing, the technology has not been explored much. However, 67% of CPO:s in a survey showed that AI is one of their top priorities the next 10 years. AI can be used to identify patterns, predict prices and provide support in decision making. A qualitative case study has been performed in a strategic sourcing function at a large size global industrial company where the purpose has been to investigate how applicable AI is in the strategic sourcing process at The Case Company. In order to achieve the purpose of this study, it has been important to understand the strategic sourcing process and understand what AI technology is and what it is capable of in strategic sourcing. Based on the empirical data collection combined with literature, opportunities of applying AI in strategic sourcing have been identified and key areas for an implementation have been suggested. These include Forecasting, Spend Analysis & Savings Tracking, Supplier Risk Management, Supplier Identification & Selection, RFQ process, Negotiation process, Contract Management and Supplier Performance Management. These key areas have followed the framework identified in the literature study while identifying and adding new factors. It also seemed important to consider factors such as challenges and risks, readiness and maturity as well as factors that seems to be important to consider in order to enable an implementation. To assess how mature and ready the strategic sourcing function is for an implementation, some of the previous digital projects including AI technologies have been mapped and analysed. Based on the identified key areas of opportunities of applying AI, use cases and corresponding benefits of applying AI have been suggested. A guideline including important factors to consider if applying the technology has also been provided. However, it has been concluded that there might be beneficial to start with a smaller use case and then scale it up. Also as the strategic sourcing function has been establishing a spend analytics platform for the indirect team, there might be a good start to evaluate that project and then apply AI on top of the existing solution. Other factors to consider are ensuring data quality and security, align with top management as well as demonstrate the advantages AI can provide in terms of increased efficiency and cost savings. The entire strategic sourcing function should be involved in an AI project and the focus should not only be on technological aspect but also on soft factors including change management and working agile in order to successfully apply AI in strategic sourcing. / Artificiell Intelligens har blivit allt viktigare ur ett affärsperspektiv. När det gäller strategiskt inköp har tekniken inte undersökts lika mycket tidigare. Hursomhelst, 67% av alla tillfrågade CPO:er i en enkät ansåg att AI är en av deras topprioriteringar de kommande tio åren. AI kan exempelvis identifiera mönster, förutspå priser samt ge support inom beslutsfattning. En kvalitativ fallstudie har utförts i en strategisk inköpsfunktion hos ett globalt industriföretag där syftet har varit att undersöka hur tillämpbart AI är i strategiskt inköp hos Case-Företaget. För att uppnå syftet med denna studie har det varit viktigt att förstå vad den strategiska inköpsprocessen omfattas av samt vad AI-teknologi är och vad den är kapabel till inom strategiskt inköp. Därför har litteraturstudien gjorts för att undersöka hur man använt AI inom strategiskt inköp tidigare och vilka fördelar som finns. Baserat på empirisk datainsamling kombinerat med litteratur har nyckelområden för att applicera AI inom strategiskt inköp föreslagits inkluderat forecasting, spendanalys & besparingsspårning, riskhantering av leverantörer, leverantörsidentifikation och val, RFQ-processen, förhandlingsprocessen, kontrakthantering samt uppföljning av leverantörsprestation. Dessa nyckelområden har följt det ramverk som skapats i litteraturstudien samtidigt som nya faktorer har identifierats och lagts till då de ansetts som viktiga. För att tillämpa AI i strategiska inköpsprocessen måste Case-Företaget överväga andra aspekter än var i inköpsprocessen de kan dra nytta av AI mest. Faktorer som utmaningar och risker, beredskap och mognad samt faktorer som ansetts viktiga att beakta för att möjliggöra en implementering har identifierats. För att bedöma hur mogen och redo den strategiska inköpsfunktionen hos Case-Företaget är för en implementering har några av de tidigare digitala projekten inklusive AI-teknik kartlagts och analyserats. Det har emellertid konstaterats att det kan vara fördelaktigt för strategiskt inköp att börja med ett mindre användningsområde och sedan skala upp det. Eftersom strategiska inköpsfunktionen har implementerat en spendanalys plattform kan det vara en bra start att utvärdera det projektet och sedan tillämpa AI ovanpå den befintliga lösningen. Andra faktorer att beakta är att försäkra datakvalitet och säkerhet, involvera ledningen samt lyfta vilka fördelar AI kan ge i form av ökad effektivitet och kostnadsbesparingar. Därtill är det viktigt att inkludera hela strategiska inköps-funktionen samt att inte endast beakta den tekniska aspekten utan också mjuka faktorer så som change management och agila metoder.

What makes real life contractual arrangements? How does the law influence real life contractual arrangements? These are everyday questions for businesspeople and commercial lawyers. The traditional ‘imperative’ view of law assumes that business people contract ‘in the shadow of the law’ and contractual arrangements conform to what the law says. But empirical studies on contract practice suggest that contract law may, in fact, play a very insignificant role in real life contractual arrangements. This thesis provides a sociological view of the role of contract law in real life contractual arrangements in the context of the Vietnamese market. Specifically, this thesis applies an institutional law & economics approach to investigate how social structures of the market influence contractual arrangements to marginalize contract law in the Vietnamese market. Drawing on two surveys of contract behaviour in the Vietnamese market, this thesis finds that real life contractual arrangements respond to the institutional structure of the market as a whole, rather than only ‘the shadow of the law’. Institutional changes in the Vietnamese market suggest that there exists a merchant law system, constituted of traditional moral norms and social structures in the market. This merchant law system continues to order contractual arrangements in the market, despite the introduction of a transplanted contract law system. Disagreeing with the imperative approach, this thesis claims that contract law reform should conform to the institutional structure of the market to reduce transaction costs of contracting and to provide an effective framework for real life contractual arrangements.