Bakgrund: Kreditvärderingsinstituten har genom åren fått en del kritik. Under finanskrisen kring 2008 var en bidragande orsak till att kraschen blev så allvarlig på grund av felaktiga kreditvärderingar. Detta var dock endast möjligt på grund av att banker i stor utsträckning ignorerade riskerna med de felaktiga kreditbetygen, som de med hög sannolikhet var medvetna om. Med bakgrund som denna anser författarna att det är av intresse och nytta att granska huruvida kreditbedömningar på banker påverkar aktiekursen och på så sätt bolagsvärdet. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka om kreditbetygsförändringar på de svenska storbankerna; Handelsbanken, Nordea, SEB och Swedbank påverkar respektive banks aktiekurs. Ett delsyfte är att studera eventuell omfattning av denna påverkan på aktiekursen. Ett vidare delsyfte är att undersöka om det finns en skillnad i hur kreditbetygsförändringar påverkar aktiepriset hos de svenska storbankerna i hög- respektive lågkonjunktur. Metod: Denna kvantitativa studie grundas i en deduktiv ansats och hypoteser har utformats med hjälp av författarnas utvalda teorier: Effektiva marknadshypotesen (EMH), Agentteori och Signalteori. Studien har sedan genomförts i form av en eventstudie och det har uppmätts om det finns signifikanta avvikelser i aktiekursen vid publicerandet av en kreditbetygsförändring. Resultat: Resultatet i studien visar på att det finns signifikant påverkan på aktiekursen vid kreditbetygsnedgraderingar på eventdagen. Det påvisades även att lågkonjunktur var en bidragande faktor till aktieutvecklingen. Slutsats: Denna studie finner att kreditbetygsförändringar utgör en effekt på aktiekursen hos de svenska storbankerna. Det kan dock inte fastställas om det finns någon skillnad mellan upp- och nedgraderingar i denna studie. Resultatet visar istället på att lågkonjunktur är den bakomliggande orsaken till att aktiekursen påverkas signifikant. Resultatet tyder även på att aktiekursen har anpassat sig snabbare än i tidigare studier, vilket kan vara en följd av en mer digitaliserad marknad. / Background: Credit rating agencies have received a lot of criticism over the years. During the financial crisis, a contributing cause to why the crash became so serious was due to incorrect credit ratings. This was although only possible because banks generally ignored the risk in the incorrect credit ratings, which they with high probability knew of. With a background like this, the authors believe that it is of interest and benefit to examine whether credit assessments on banks affect the stock price and thus the company value. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate whether credit rating changes on the major swedish banks; Handelsbanken, Nordea, SEB and Swedbank affect each bank's stock price. One part of the purpose is to study the extent of this impact on the stock price. A further part of the purpose is to study if there is a difference in the effect credit rating changes have on the major swedish banks stock price in a economic expansion respective recession. Methodology: This quantitative study is based on a deductive approach and hypotheses have been designed using the authors' selected theories: The Effective Market Hypothesis (EMH), Agent Theory and Signal Theory. The study is then implemented in the form of an event study and it has been tested if there are any significant deviations in the stock price connected to the credit rating changes. Results: The result of the study indicates that there is significant effect on the stock price during the event day when a credit rating downgrade is announced. The results also show that recession is a contributing factor to the significant effect on the stock price. Conclusions: This study finds that changes of credit ratings constitute an effect on the stock price among the big Swedish banks. It can however not be established if there is a difference between up- and downgrades. The result indicates instead that recession is the contributing factor to the significant effect on the stock price. The results also indicate that the stock price has adjusted faster than in earlier studies, which can be an effect of a more digitized market.

No description available.

Kreditvärderingsinstitut arbetar med att göra analyser och bedömningar om vad bolag har för kreditvärdighet genom att tilldela ett kreditbetyg. Bolagen kan välja vilket kreditbetyg de vill publicera till allmänheten. Kreditbetygen används som ett verktyg på obligationsmarknaden för att prissätta dessa, och har därför betydelse för fastighetsbolagens kreditvärdighet. Obligationsmarknaden är en viktig finansieringskälla för större fastighetsbolag. Syftet med detta arbete är att ge läsaren en övergripande bild av de dominerande kreditvärderingsinstituten på den svenska fastighetsmarknaden och eventuella likheter, skillnader och potentiella svagheter. Detta för att identifiera eventuella påföljder som de dominerande kreditvärderingsinstituten kan medföra. Arbetet utgår från både kvalitativ och kvantitativ metod. Den kvalitativa metoden består av ett teoretiskt ramverk som innehåller institutens betygsskalor, kreditvärderingsprocess, policys och disclaimer. Kvantitativa metoden innefattar mejlintervjuer, som skickats ut till 30 svenska fastighetsbolag med publika kreditbetyg. Resultaten visar att det finns likheter, skillnader och svagheter mellan de olika kreditvärderingsinstituten. Trots dominerande likheter hos instituten visade resultatet från mejlintervjuerna en skillnad på fyra betygssteg i snitt-kreditbetyg hos fastighetsföretagen och skillnader i kreditbetyg till Danske Bank. Likheterna och skillnaderna kan leda till svagheter som att fastighetsbolag betalar mycket pengar för ett eller flera kreditbetyg som instituten inte tar ansvar över, och som investerare eventuellt fattar investeringsbeslut baserat på. / Credit rating agencies work to make analyzers and assessments of what companies' creditworthiness is by assigning a credit rating. Companies can choose which credit ratings they want to publish to the public. The credit ratings are used as a tool for obligations to price these and are important for the real estate companies' creditworthiness. Liabilities market is an important source of financing for major real estate companies.   The purpose of this Bachelor Thesis is to give the reader an overall picture of the dominant credit rating agency in the Swedish real estate market and point out any similarities, differences and potential weaknesses. This is to identify any penalties that the dominant credit rating agencies may incur. This work is based on both qualitative and quantitative methods. The qualitative method consists of a theoretical framework that contains the institutions' grading scales, credit rating process, policies and disclaimer. The quantitative method includes email interviews, which have been sent out to 30 Swedish real estate companies with public credit ratings.  Results show that there are similarities, differences and weaknesses between the different credit rating agencies. The dominant similarities between the institutions showed the results from the email interviews and the difference between four rating steps in the average credit rating of the real estate companies and differences in credit ratings to Danske Bank. The similarities and differences can lead to weaknesses such as real estate companies paying a lot of money for one or more credit ratings, which the institutions do not take responsibility for, and on which investors may make investment decisions based on.

Kredito reitingai viena iš populiariausių, plačiai naudojamų priemonių vertinant riziką, susijusią su emitento galimybėmis ateityje vykdyti savo finansinius įsipareigojimus. Pastarųjų metų finansų krizė finansų rinkų dalyvius privertė suabejoti kredito reitingų patikimumu ir kredito reitingų agentūrų veikla. Kredito reitingų populiarumas, jų reikšmė ir abejonės dėl jų patikimumo skatina išanalizuoti kredito reitingų naudojamas metodologijas, kad suprasti, kaip naudoti jų teikiamą informaciją. Tyrimo problema – ar nepriklausomų kredito reitingų agentūrų suteikti kredito reitingai yra objektyvūs ir patikimi, ir ar investuotojai gali remtis jais priimdami finansinius sprendimus. Tyrimo tikslas – išnagrinėjus kredito reitingų agentūrų naudojamas metodologijas, palyginti Lietuvos komercinių bankų veiklos rezultatų kaitą su jiems suteiktų kredito reitingų pokyčiais bei įvertinti suteikiamų kredito reitingų patikimumą. Šiam tikslui pasiekti, nustatyti tokie uždaviniai: 1. pateikti kredito reitingų sampratą, aprašyti jų suteikimo procesą; 2. išanalizuoti metodologijas, naudojamas suteikiant kredito reitingus; 3. išanalizuoti priežastis, lėmusias pasitikėjimo kredito reitingų agentūromis mažėjimą ir šių institucijų priežiūros priemones; 4. atlikti ekspertinį analizuojamų bankų ir jų aplinkos rodiklių kompleksinį vertinimą; 5. įvertinti kredito reitingų patikimumą, lyginant jų kitimą su kelių Lietuvos komercinių bankų finansinių rodiklių kaita. Baigiamajame magistro darbe iškelta... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Credit ratings are one of the most popular and widely used measure the creditworthiness of issuers. The financial crisis of late years reduced trust of credit ratings and credit rating agencies. The popularity of credit ratings, their importance and doubts of their trustworthiness motivate to analyze methodologies that are used by credit rating agencies and interpret the information credit ratings gives in a properly way. The problem of the research – do sovereign credit ratings are objective and trustworthiness and investors can use them then making financial decisions. The purpose of the research – to analyze methodologies that are used by credit rating agencies, compare Lithuanian commercial banks‘ financial indices and credit ratings dynamics and evaluate the trustworthiness of credit ratings. Tasks of this work: 1. to give the conception of credit ratings and to decribe the process of estimating them; 2. to analyze the methodologies that are used by credit rating agencies; 3. to analyze the reasons of reduced trustworthiness of credit rating agencies and tools that could be used to supervise them; 4. to perform experts‘ evaluation of analyzed banks and their environment by using the multiciterial analysis; 5. evaluate the trustworthiness of credit ratings by comparing their dynamics with dynamics of financial indices of some Lithuanian commercial banks. The hypothesis of Master‘s Work – financial indices ant their dynamics do not definetely gives significant influence... [to full text]

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar aspectos relevantes da economia internacional. O primeiro ensaio desta tese visou avaliar pela primeira vez (até onde se tem conhecimento) se o recente desenvolvimento do mercado de Credit Default Swaps - CDS alterou os efeitos das mudanças de rating sobre o mercado financeiro.Como o CDS é um derivativo que tem como objetivo refletir a qualidade do crédito do ativo avaliado e esta mensuração é feita através do mercado e de forma contínua no tempo, este instrumento poderia reduzir a relevância dos ratings atribuídos pelas agências; uma vez que estes últimos também avaliam a qualidade do crédito, mas sua atuação é discreta no tempo. Foi empregada a metodologia de estudo de evento a uma base de dados diária de CDS, bolsa e taxas de câmbio para37 países. Em resumo,foram encontradas evidências de que o impacto das mudanças de ratings sobre os ativos financeiros sofreu moderação nos últimos dez anos e que o papel do CDS pode estar por trás desta redução. Além disso, foram encontrados resultados que mostram que o mercado de CDS é o que mais reage a reclassificações de risco. O principal objetivo dos ensaios seguintes é trazer luz ao debate das fontes de competitividade no comércio internacional. Neste sentido, o segundo ensaio trata do papel do custo fixo de entrada para a exportação sobre a competitividade internacional no nível da firma. Foi estimadoo custo médio de entrada para a exportação utilizando o banco de dados do World Bank Enterprise Survey do Banco Mundial que conta com informações de mais de 70 mil firmas de diversos setores de atividade distribuídas em mais de 120 países em desenvolvimento. A pesquisadora se apoiou no modelo e na metodologia desenvolvidos na publicação da Econometrica de Das, Roberts e Tybout (2007) e conclui que em média uma firma paga 3,2 milhões de dólares para começar a exportar. Além disso, encontrou que o custo fixo de entrada para exportação varia entre os países e isso ajuda a explicar porque firmas semelhantes com produtividade parecida instaladas em países diferentes têm probabilidades distintas de serem exportadoras. No terceiro ensaio desta tese, estudou-se o impacto da desoneração da folha de pagamento, implementada a partir de 2011, nas exportações e importações brasileiras. Através de um painel de efeito fixo para produto, relacionando as exportações e importações em função da variável desoneração e a da variável de intensidade de mão-de-obra na produção do bem. Os dados foram extraídos do MDIC, da PIA e a variável desoneração foi construída utilizando as diversas leis que, ao longo do tempo, foram ampliando o rol de bens desonerados. Grosso modo, controlando por intensidade de mão-de-obra, encontrou-se que as desonerações foram responsáveis por uma queda da quantidade importada dos bens cujos similares foram desonerados internamente, enquanto que o efeito nas exportações provocou uma queda nos preços dos bens desonerados que não foi compensada por uma elevação na quantidade exportada, o que conjuntamente resultou em uma queda das exportações em valor. / This thesis evaluated some relevant aspects of the international economy. The first chapter evaluatesfor the first time (as far as we know) if the recent development of the credit default swaps market, CDS, has changed the effects of rating reclassifications on the financial market. Given that the price of CDS is driven bythe entity\'s credit quality and it moves continuously over time, this instrument would reduce the significance of ratings assigned by the agencies, since these agencies act discretely over time. We apply the event study methodology to a daily database of CDS, stocks and exchange rates for 37 countries. Generally speaking, we find evidences that the impact of ratings changes on financial assets has moderated over the past decade and that the role of CDS may explain this reduction. Furthermore, we find results that show that the CDS market is more responsive to risk reclassification. The following chapters have the main objective to shed some light on the debate on the sources of competitiveness in international trade. In this sense, the second chapter studies the role of sunk entry cost to export in international competitiveness at firm level. We estimate the average export sunk entry cost using the World Bank Enterprise Survey database of the World Bank that has informations about more than 70 thousand firms spreaded over several activity\'s sectors and more than 120 developing countries. We followed the model and methodology developed by Das, Roberts and Tybout in a paper published in Econometrica in 2007 and we found that a firm, in average, pays 2.3million dollars in order to start exporting. Besides that, we found that the export entry cost varies between countries and this fact helps to explain why similar firms in different countries have different probabilities to become exporters. In the third chapter of this thesis, we present a study on the impact of the payroll tax exemption implemented since 2011 on Brazilian exports and imports. Using a panel of fixed effect for product, we will relate the exports and imports as function of the variable exemption and the variable of labor intensity in the production function of the good. The data were extracted from the MDIC, the PIA and the variable exemption was constructed using the many laws that, over time, were expanding the list of exempted goods. Generally speaking, controlling by labor intensity, we found that the payroll tax exemption was responsible for a drop in the quantity of goods imported from abroad, while the effect on exports led to a drop in the prices of the goods exported, which was not offset by a rise in the quantity exported, resulting in a fall in exports by FOB value.

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar aspectos relevantes da economia internacional. O primeiro ensaio desta tese visou avaliar pela primeira vez (até onde se tem conhecimento) se o recente desenvolvimento do mercado de Credit Default Swaps - CDS alterou os efeitos das mudanças de rating sobre o mercado financeiro.Como o CDS é um derivativo que tem como objetivo refletir a qualidade do crédito do ativo avaliado e esta mensuração é feita através do mercado e de forma contínua no tempo, este instrumento poderia reduzir a relevância dos ratings atribuídos pelas agências; uma vez que estes últimos também avaliam a qualidade do crédito, mas sua atuação é discreta no tempo. Foi empregada a metodologia de estudo de evento a uma base de dados diária de CDS, bolsa e taxas de câmbio para37 países. Em resumo,foram encontradas evidências de que o impacto das mudanças de ratings sobre os ativos financeiros sofreu moderação nos últimos dez anos e que o papel do CDS pode estar por trás desta redução. Além disso, foram encontrados resultados que mostram que o mercado de CDS é o que mais reage a reclassificações de risco. O principal objetivo dos ensaios seguintes é trazer luz ao debate das fontes de competitividade no comércio internacional. Neste sentido, o segundo ensaio trata do papel do custo fixo de entrada para a exportação sobre a competitividade internacional no nível da firma. Foi estimadoo custo médio de entrada para a exportação utilizando o banco de dados do World Bank Enterprise Survey do Banco Mundial que conta com informações de mais de 70 mil firmas de diversos setores de atividade distribuídas em mais de 120 países em desenvolvimento. A pesquisadora se apoiou no modelo e na metodologia desenvolvidos na publicação da Econometrica de Das, Roberts e Tybout (2007) e conclui que em média uma firma paga 3,2 milhões de dólares para começar a exportar. Além disso, encontrou que o custo fixo de entrada para exportação varia entre os países e isso ajuda a explicar porque firmas semelhantes com produtividade parecida instaladas em países diferentes têm probabilidades distintas de serem exportadoras. No terceiro ensaio desta tese, estudou-se o impacto da desoneração da folha de pagamento, implementada a partir de 2011, nas exportações e importações brasileiras. Através de um painel de efeito fixo para produto, relacionando as exportações e importações em função da variável desoneração e a da variável de intensidade de mão-de-obra na produção do bem. Os dados foram extraídos do MDIC, da PIA e a variável desoneração foi construída utilizando as diversas leis que, ao longo do tempo, foram ampliando o rol de bens desonerados. Grosso modo, controlando por intensidade de mão-de-obra, encontrou-se que as desonerações foram responsáveis por uma queda da quantidade importada dos bens cujos similares foram desonerados internamente, enquanto que o efeito nas exportações provocou uma queda nos preços dos bens desonerados que não foi compensada por uma elevação na quantidade exportada, o que conjuntamente resultou em uma queda das exportações em valor. / This thesis evaluated some relevant aspects of the international economy. The first chapter evaluatesfor the first time (as far as we know) if the recent development of the credit default swaps market, CDS, has changed the effects of rating reclassifications on the financial market. Given that the price of CDS is driven bythe entity\'s credit quality and it moves continuously over time, this instrument would reduce the significance of ratings assigned by the agencies, since these agencies act discretely over time. We apply the event study methodology to a daily database of CDS, stocks and exchange rates for 37 countries. Generally speaking, we find evidences that the impact of ratings changes on financial assets has moderated over the past decade and that the role of CDS may explain this reduction. Furthermore, we find results that show that the CDS market is more responsive to risk reclassification. The following chapters have the main objective to shed some light on the debate on the sources of competitiveness in international trade. In this sense, the second chapter studies the role of sunk entry cost to export in international competitiveness at firm level. We estimate the average export sunk entry cost using the World Bank Enterprise Survey database of the World Bank that has informations about more than 70 thousand firms spreaded over several activity\'s sectors and more than 120 developing countries. We followed the model and methodology developed by Das, Roberts and Tybout in a paper published in Econometrica in 2007 and we found that a firm, in average, pays 2.3million dollars in order to start exporting. Besides that, we found that the export entry cost varies between countries and this fact helps to explain why similar firms in different countries have different probabilities to become exporters. In the third chapter of this thesis, we present a study on the impact of the payroll tax exemption implemented since 2011 on Brazilian exports and imports. Using a panel of fixed effect for product, we will relate the exports and imports as function of the variable exemption and the variable of labor intensity in the production function of the good. The data were extracted from the MDIC, the PIA and the variable exemption was constructed using the many laws that, over time, were expanding the list of exempted goods. Generally speaking, controlling by labor intensity, we found that the payroll tax exemption was responsible for a drop in the quantity of goods imported from abroad, while the effect on exports led to a drop in the prices of the goods exported, which was not offset by a rise in the quantity exported, resulting in a fall in exports by FOB value.

The implementation of International Accounting Standard 32 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation (lAS 32), International Accounting Standard 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement (lAS 39) and International Financial Reporting Standard 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosures (IFRS 7) by developing countries has been met with mixed reactions largely due to the extensive use of the fair value concept by the three accounting standards. The use of the fair value concept in developing countries has proved to be a significant challenge due to either a Jack of formal capital market systems or very thinly traded capital markets. This study investigates the obstacles to determining fair values of equity share investments, government bonds and corporate bonds, treasury bills and loan advances in Mozambique. The study was done through a combination of literature review and empirical research using a questionnaire. The trading statistics of the financial instruments on the Mozambique Stock Exchange and the prospectuses of bonds were used. The empirical research was carried out using a type of non-probability sampling technique called purposive sampling. A subcategory of purposive sampling called expert sampling was used to select the eventual sample which was composed of people with specialised knowledge on the capital market system in Mozambique. The results of the empirical research were analysed using pie charts to summarise the responses. The research concluded that the Mozambique Stock Exchange is an inactive market for financial instruments characterised by thin trading in both equity shares and bonds. The estimation of fair values evidenced by observable market transactions is therefore impossible. The absence of credit rating agencies in Mozambique presents a significant challenge in assigning credit risk and pricing financial instruments such as bonds. The research also noted that significant volatility of the main economic indicators such as treasury bills interest rates and inflation made it difficult to determine fair values of financial instruments using financial modelling techniques. Due to the above obstacles to determining fair values of certain financial instruments in Mozambique, the best alternatives are to value these financial instruments at either cost or amortised cost. / Financial Accounting / M. Com. (Accounting)

Title: Credit Rating Impact on Information Environment – A study on the informational impact of credit ratings in financial markets using equity analysts’ performance as proxy. Introduction: The credit rating agencies provide risk assessment for a massive amount of financial assets around the world. These risk assessments are in turn used by numerous different market participants. The general idea behind this industry is that the credit ratings provide additional information or alternatively increase the quality of information in financial markets. Recent studies (most of which is written after the financial crisis of 2008) argue that there are several issues in the rating processes leading to failure to provide accurate ratings. Other studies still claim that credit rating agencies still provide useful information or alternatively increase the quality of information by sorting and ranking public knowledge of assets. We see the need for an investigating study examining the informational benefits of credit rating in the information environment of markets. Research Approach: How does the issuing of credit ratings impact the information environment in financial markets? Purpose: The study aim to contribute to the understanding of the current and historical effects that credit ratings have, and have had, on the information quality of markets and hence the efficiency of markets. Method: Our study takes a deductive research approach where the methodology is one of a quantitative and explanatory character. To analyze the effects on market information we use the BKLS model (Barron, Kim, Lim & Stevens, 1998), which uses equity analysts’ performance as proxy for the information environment. These data are then used in a long-term time-series study looking for long-term changes in analysts’ performance with yearly observations. Furthermore we test the instant market effects on stock prices from the issuing of a credit rating in a secondary short-term time-series study with daily observations. Conclusions: We find that the issuing of a credit rating in fact decreases the amount/quality of information available in financial markets (both public and private information). We contribute these effects to conflicts of interest in the rating processes and agency problems in the relationship between issuer and credit rating agency. Several practical examples of this are found such as ratings shopping, solicitation of ratings issuing, agencies offering consultant services and the lack of regulatory measures taken by regulators such as ESMA and SEC. We propose several ways of developing the research in this field; most importantly we want to see future studies on the differences between solicited/unsolicited issuing of ratings.

L’objectif de cette thèse doctorale est de contribuer à l’ensemble de la recherche sur les agences de notation. Elle couvre les trois aspects : théorique, conceptuel et empirique. La première partie se focalise sur le Néo-Institutionnalisme. Le Capitalisme d’État propre au marché chinois a été mis en avant, et un bilan comparatif a été dressé entre les marchés chinois et européens. Une analyse dynamique nous permet ensuite d’illustrer l’interaction des agences de notation avec les autorités régulatrices, les émetteurs de titres financiers, et les investisseurs. Dans la seconde partie, nous avons réalisé une vaste revue de la littérature, et proposé d’ajouter les spécificités institutionnelles chinoises aux variables déjà prises en compte dans les études. Au niveau de la méthodologie, certains outils qualitatifs et quantitatifs ont été envisagés. Diverses approches sont choisies en fonction du contenu de chacun des chapitres : le rôle, la stratégie et l’impact des agences de notation en Chine.Premièrement, par une approche comparative, nous avons montré qu'en Chine, le rôle des agences de notation ne se limitait pas à celui qui leur est habituellement assigné. Il semble aussi que les agences de notations se laissent tenter par le « rating shopping », le « split rating » et le « rating inflation », sous la pression des émetteurs. En revanche, les investisseurs sont relativement prudents lors de « multiples ratings ». Deuxièmement, nous avons mis en évidence que les agences de notation internationales ont tendance à noter plus strictement que les agences locales. Nous nous sommes rendu compte que les comportements stratégiques variaient d’une à l’autre, lorsque l’on étudie les déterminants des notations initiales des émetteurs. Troisièmement, en menant une étude d’événements sur le marché chinois des actions, nous avons trouvé des rendements anormaux significatifs sur quelques sous-échantillons des « modifications de notation », après avoir adopté différentes méthodes d’estimation, et mené divers tests paramétriques et non-paramétriques. Enfin, les analyses et résultats que nous avons apportés au cours de chaque chapitre empirique, ont enrichi en retour, nos discussions sur l’environnement institutionnel du marché chinois / In this Ph.D. thesis, we aim to contribute to the entire research on CRAs, with theoretical, conceptual and empirical aspects. We used the New-institutionalism as a theoretical frame of reference to justify the importance to have a good understanding of Chinese institutional characteristics. Chinese State-capitalism and Socialist-market economics, along with the interaction of CRAs with regulators, issuers and investors are devoted to setting the stage. We implemented various methodological approaches that seemed the most appropriate, on the sample that the most suitable, according to each of the objectives that we set, to better comprehend CRAs’ role, strategy and impact, under Chinese market context.Firstly, we found that CRAs were not expected to play “their main role” in assessing the credit default risk for market investment in China, as they are usually assigned to do so in Europe, and other developed countries. After running the frequency test, to register the words most used in the written regulatory and normative documents, we concluded that the expectation of roles of CRAs was also different in Continental China and in Hong Kong. At the expectation of issuers, CRAs also seem to play a role in rating “shopping”, in split rating, and even in rating inflation. Investors are very cautious to the multiple ratings. Secondly, by using logistic models, we found that global CRAs tend to rate more strictly than local CRAs, ceteris paribus. We also realized that the strategical behaviors of Chinese local CRAs are distinctive one from the other, when we studied the determinants “behind” initial issuer ratings. These findings confirmed the preliminary quantitative tests that we executed on the descriptive data. Thirdly, we failed to find informative impact of credit rating changes on the stock market, through a classic event study relying on the market model. Even if we refined the methodology by completing GARCH to OLS estimation model, and non-parametric tests to parametric tests, we only found significant outcomes in some subsamples, and for negative watch-lists.In the end, the analyses we led and the findings we reported from each of these empirical chapters have contributed to enrich, in return, our discussion of Chinese institutional characteristics

The implementation of International Accounting Standard 32 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation (lAS 32), International Accounting Standard 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement (lAS 39) and International Financial Reporting Standard 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosures (IFRS 7) by developing countries has been met with mixed reactions largely due to the extensive use of the fair value concept by the three accounting standards. The use of the fair value concept in developing countries has proved to be a significant challenge due to either a Jack of formal capital market systems or very thinly traded capital markets. This study investigates the obstacles to determining fair values of equity share investments, government bonds and corporate bonds, treasury bills and loan advances in Mozambique. The study was done through a combination of literature review and empirical research using a questionnaire. The trading statistics of the financial instruments on the Mozambique Stock Exchange and the prospectuses of bonds were used. The empirical research was carried out using a type of non-probability sampling technique called purposive sampling. A subcategory of purposive sampling called expert sampling was used to select the eventual sample which was composed of people with specialised knowledge on the capital market system in Mozambique. The results of the empirical research were analysed using pie charts to summarise the responses. The research concluded that the Mozambique Stock Exchange is an inactive market for financial instruments characterised by thin trading in both equity shares and bonds. The estimation of fair values evidenced by observable market transactions is therefore impossible. The absence of credit rating agencies in Mozambique presents a significant challenge in assigning credit risk and pricing financial instruments such as bonds. The research also noted that significant volatility of the main economic indicators such as treasury bills interest rates and inflation made it difficult to determine fair values of financial instruments using financial modelling techniques. Due to the above obstacles to determining fair values of certain financial instruments in Mozambique, the best alternatives are to value these financial instruments at either cost or amortised cost. / Financial Accounting / M. Com. (Accounting)