La presente investigación tuvo como finalidad la evaluación de crédito y cobranzas para mejorar la liquidez de la empresa Corporación Agrícola Don Sholo SAC, ubicado en la ciudad de nueva Cajamarca, para determinar la eficiencia de las políticas y cobranzas durante el periodo 2020. La empresa Corporación Agrícola Don Sholo SAC. Dedicada a la compra y venta de fertilizantes, insecticidas, utiliza dos formas de ventas que son al contado y ventas al crédito, con la cual estima obtener liquidez. Se ha propuesto describir el proceso de crédito y cobranza mediante el uso de flujogramas; determinar el porcentaje de índice de morosidad de los clientes, provisión y castigo de las cuentas por cobrar y para lograr la eficiencia de las políticas de créditos y cobranza. Así mismo se realizó una investigación a acompañada de materiales de estudio a través de documentos y análisis de la información de carácter descriptivo para verificar la gestión de las cuentas por cobrar, la cual permitieron determinaron la ausencia de la aplicación de las políticas que rigen a esta empresa, estas se encuentran definidos, pero no encaminados hacia su cumplimiento. En su resumen, estas políticas de crédito, al parecer resultan ineficientes, originando un alto índice de cuentas por cobrar en la empresa, las mismas que deberían ser evaluadas, a fin de mejorarlas, a fin de mejorarlas, reemplazarlas o en su defecto aplicarlo mejor. Por tal motivo, es preciso proponer mejoras en cuanto a las políticas y procedimientos de créditos y cobranzas, las mismas se serán de gran utilidad para la gestión ya que las cuentas por cobrar representan activos importantes de la empresa, permitiendo de manera práctica y oportuna el buen funcionamiento del área de créditos y cobranzas. / The purpose of this research was to evaluate credit and collections to improve the liquidity of the company Corporación Agricola Don Sholo SAC, located in the city of Nueva Cajamarca, to determine the efficiency of policies and collections during the 2020 period. The company Agricultural Corporación Don Sholo SAC. Dedicated to the purchase and sale of fertilizers, insecticides, it uses two forms of sales that are cash and credit sales, with which it estimates to obtain liquidity. It has been proposed to describe the credit and collection process through the use of flowcharts; determine the percentage of delinquency rate of customers, provision and write-off of accounts receivable and to achieve the efficiency of credit and collection policies. Likewise, an investigation was carried out accompanied by study materials through documents and analysis of descriptive information to verify the management of accounts receivable, which allowed determining the absence of the application of the policies that govern this company, these are defined, but not directed towards compliance. In its summary, these credit policies, apparently, are inefficient, originating a high index of accounts receivable in the company, the same ones that should be evaluated, in order to improve them, in order to improve them, replace them or, failing that, apply it better. For this reason, it is necessary to propose improvements in terms of credit and collection policies and procedures, they will be very useful for management since accounts receivable represent important assets of the company, allowing in a practical and timely manner the good functioning of the area of credits and collections.

The objective of this thesis is to examine real exchange rate volatility, with a particular focus on investigating the causes of exchange rate jumps. While the predominant approach in the literature is to examine the interaction between nominal rigidities and nominal shocks, this thesis examines the volatility that arises from real rigidities and shocks. Trying to better understand the transmission of real shocks to the exchange rate is a worthwhile task, given the substantial evidence that these shocks and rigidities are important for explaining other economic fluctuations. This thesis develops theoretical models that examine the contributions of specific real rigidities to exchange rate volatility. Chapter 1 introduces our baseline specification - a frictionless model, with the exception of capital adjustment costs. This baseline generates very mild exchange rate fluctuations. Additional rigidities are required to generate volatility of the magnitude that is typically observed. Chapter 2 finds that introducing imperfect asset substitutability - specifically, home asset bias - goes a little towards achieving this. When investors are biased, the exchange rate must adjust by more to equilibrate asset markets. This greater burden of adjustment on the exchange rate along the short run path typically translates to larger jumps after shocks. Similarly, Chapter 3 shows that augmenting the baseline with banks and financial frictions raises exchange rate volatility. The key point is that, in the presence of financial frictions, there is a risk premium that widens after negative shocks, increasing the required adjustment of the exchange rate. A fourth chapter extends Chapter 3 and shows that unconventional credit policy, while beneficial in some respects, nonetheless entails nontrivial costs because it invites moral hazard by encouraging banks to be more highly leveraged, which increases exchange rate and consumption volatility. So, the overall message is that, in the presence of plausible real frictions - including (i) capital adjustment costs, (ii) imperfect asset substitutability, and (iii) financial frictions - real shocks can generate a plausibly significant degree of real exchange rate volatility. This thus posits an additional explanation of exchange rate jumps that complements the predominantly monetary literature.

Subject of my thesis is a credit risk in the czech banking environment. It consists of five chapters. First one contains description of basic risks banks are exposed to. The next one addresses the credit risk itself and its management, including determination of credit policy and the process of credit granting. Related to this topic is hedging, in broader sense also including provisioning and reserves creation. Third chapter is about credit derivatives, via which the credit risk can be reduced. Closely related to this topic is a securitisation process and it's products. Fourth chapter deals with regulation, which is an essential part of the banking sector nowadays. I focus primarily on Basel II and its credit risk part. In the final chapter I describe credit risk management of one of the biggest czech banks, Ceska sporitelna, which granted most credits in 2010.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Este trabalho trata da avaliaÃÃo de impactos dos financiamentos do Banco do Nordeste do Brasil (BNB), por meio do Programa Industrial, na geraÃÃo de empregos nas indÃstrias do setor calÃadista da regiÃo Nordeste, no perÃodo de 1998 a 2006. Como polÃtica de crÃdito voltada para o fortalecimento do setor industrial do Nordeste, o referido Programa tem como objetivo financiar a implantaÃÃo, modernizaÃÃo, ampliaÃÃo e relocalizaÃÃo de projetos industriais. Contudo, cabe perguntar se o desenvolvimento do setor calÃadista por meio desses financiamentos tem se traduzido na melhoria dos indicadores de emprego, em consonÃncia com o papel do BNB de atuar como ÃrgÃo de desenvolvimento do Nordeste. Os resultados da avaliaÃÃo apontam para a maior variaÃÃo do estoque de emprego formal nas indÃstrias calÃadistas financiadas vis-Ã-vis as nÃo-financiadas, considerando-se o perÃodo acumulado de 1998 a 2006, em relaÃÃo ao ano base (1997). Dentro do grupo de empresas financiadas, destacam-se os empreendimentos de grande porte, que apresentaram o melhor desempenho, seguidos dos empreendimentos de micro e pequenos portes. Na anÃlise da variaÃÃo anual, o melhor desempenho foi registrado pelas micro e pequenas empresas financiadas, com variaÃÃo positiva em todos os anos analisados e sempre superiores Ãs empresas nÃo financiadas. Assim, a avaliaÃÃo indica que a melhoria de acesso ao crÃdito por parte dos micro e pequenos estabelecimentos à um elemento importante para o crescimento do emprego, uma vez que as empresas desse segmento apresentaram significativa capacidade de geraÃÃo de emprego quando financiadas, à frente das indÃstrias de mÃdio porte que contrataram mais recursos tanto em termos de volume quanto em quantidade de operaÃÃes. A despeito dos resultados positivos dos impactos dos financiamentos do Programa Industrial sobre a geraÃÃo de emprego no setor calÃadista do Nordeste, entende-se que as polÃticas de crÃdito nÃo podem ser vistas como a panacÃia para o desenvolvimento da regiÃo Nordeste. Estas devem ser acompanhadas de outras polÃticas para avanÃar nas reformas estruturais imprescindÃveis para o desenvolvimento econÃmico da regiÃo.

La thèse est partie d’un problème empirique : trouver une cohérence à la diversité et aux mutations des interventions de la Caisse des dépôts et consignations (CDC) dans le développement urbain. Elle étudie les activités urbaines de cette institution financière publique en plaçant justement la focale sur l’articulation de ses deux caractéristiques majeures. Tout en étant soumise à des injonctions politiques et à «l’intérêt général», la Caisse des dépôts doit assurer la rémunération des fonds dont elle assure la gestion, notamment ceux issus de l’épargne. L’enquête «suit» l’argent de la Caisse des dépôts depuis sa collecte jusqu’à son investissement dans le cadre urbain. L’étude porte notamment sur deux villes : Sarcelles et Nantes. La thèse révèle que l’évolution du rôle de l’État et de la CDC dans la circulation des financements dans l’économie a fortement marqué de son empreinte les formes urbaines. Elle montre combien la croissance urbaine d’après-guerre doit à la Caisse des dépôts. L’établissement oriente alors, sous le contrôle de l’État, une part importante de l’épargne vers le financement du développement urbain. La forme du grand ensemble doit beaucoup à ce modèle financier et aux filiales techniques de la CDC. La libéralisation financière des années 1980 se traduit par une réduction de l’emprise de la Caisse des dépôts sur l’épargne et sur le crédit au développement urbain, au profit du marché. Une série de dispositifs comptables impose progressivement une discipline de marché aux circuits financiers de la CDC et a tendance à confiner son rôle dans l’appui des politiques urbaines au crédit au logement social. / This dissertation aims at finding a coherence in the diversity of interventions and in the evolution of the Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations (CDC) in urban development. It analyses the involvement of this public financial institution in urban development, by placing the focus on the articulation of its two major characteristics. While being subjected to political injunctions and to the "general interest", the CDC has to remunerate the capital it manages, especially household savings. The inquiry consists in "following" the money from the deposit to its investment in the urban setting. The study focuses in particular on two cities: Nantes and Sarcelles.This dissertation reveals how the changing role of the State and of the CDC in the financial system has left a significant mark on urban forms. It shows how much postwar urban growth owes to the CDC. At the time, this institution routed, under the control of the state, a large portion of savings into the financing of urban development. The shape of the housing projects (grands ensembles) owes much to the financial model and technical subsidiaries of the CDC. Financial liberalization in the 1980s then reduced the influence of the CDC on savings and on credits to urban development, in favor of the market. Reforms of accounting techniques and norms gradually imposed market discipline to the CDC’s financial circuits and tended to confine its role in support of urban policies to credits for social housing.

台灣利率自由化的演進過程，是採取循序漸進的方式，先由貨幣市場實施，再逐步推及到存放款市場。自1989年利率自由化及1991年政府開放新商業銀行設立以來，台灣銀行業的競爭就進入了白熱化的春秋戰國時代，金融版圖重新調整，產業的競爭有增無減。這期間經過兩次的金融改革，體質較弱的銀行紛紛走向讓售及被併購的命運，尤其是2008年發生金融海嘯，對銀行業的經營更是一大挑戰。觀察近年來銀行業的經營困境，存放款利差持續走低，多數銀行採取價格競爭策略，企業授信市場採用低利削價的手段，造成銀行業獲利率降低，危及銀行健全經營體質。所以本研究從文獻回顧探討影響放款利率定價決定因素，從樣本銀行實務授信政策及放款定價辦法探討影響放款利率定價決定因素，並利用樣本資料從實證模型的估計及檢驗來推估假設變數與企業貸款利率定價之間的具體關係及影響方向與程度，最後將實證結果提供予銀行管理當局擬定授信政策及建立完善放款利率定價模型之參考。 / From money market to deposit and loan markets, the development of interest rate liberalization in Taiwan has been in gradual progress. Since interest-rate liberalization in the year of 1989 and governmental approval on the establishment of new commercial banks in 1991, the competition among banks in Taiwan has become severe. Market shares among banks have thus changed. During the period, the financial market experienced two banking reforms. Banks with relatively weak financial nature have been forced to be sold or merged. Moreover, the financial turmoil in the year of 2008 made the business environment of banking industry even more challengeable. Running business in banking has been more difficult in recent years. Interest rate spread for banks has been narrowing. Most banks have adopted price competition strategies. Such price-cutting policy in commercial loan market has resulted in the deterioration of bank management in the industry. This research reviews study-papers focusing on the factors affecting commercial loan interest rate pricing, using bank A as a sample to review its actual operation of credit policy and loan pricing means. In addition, by adopting technique of empirical model measurement and statistical test on the sample data, the concrete correlation and extent of influence between hypothetical variables and pricing on commercial loan interest rate are also estimated. The aim of this paper is to provide empirical tested results to the banking authorities for their reference when designing fine credit policies and commercial loan pricing model.

The Banco de Moçambique (Bank) was established in May 17, 1975. The 1920 Brussels Conference recommended that in countries without a central bank, it should be created. The ‘Bank’ followed the new model of emerging countries’ central banks (mid-1950s), where those central banks regulated and controlled an existing financial system and promoted the emergence of a money and capital market. From 1975 the Bank performed commercial functions until 1992, when the functions of commercial banking and central banking were separated. Mozambique tried to establish a socialist society. The prevailing financial system, primarily consisting of of expatriate banks, was reorganised under the state bank. This was a restructuring and integration process. In 1980 the Metical, the new currency of Mozambique, was introduced. In the 1980s weakening economic conditions in Mozambique mandated the reconsideration of post-independence economic policies. In 1984 Mozambique accepted assistance from the Bretton Woods institutions and from 1987 the country embraced the Economic Rehabilitation Program. The Bank embarked on monetary, credit, supervisory and regulatory policies reforms, to consolidate conventional central bank functions. / History / M.A. (History)

Diese Dissertation umfasst drei Aufsätze, die untersuchen, wie sich Veränderungen im Kreditangebot auf Investitionen auswirken. Ein besonderes Augenmerk liegt hierbei auf der Relevanz von Firmenheterogenität und Finanzfriktionen. Der erste Aufsatz untersucht die Rolle von Heterogenität im Kreditausfallrisiko verschiedener Unternehmen für die Transmissionsmechanismen unkonventioneller Geldpolitik. Hierbei geht es insbesondere um Politikmaßnahmen, welche das Kreditangebot erhöhen (sogenannte Credit Policy). Die Analyse basiert auf einem Neukeynesianischen Modell mit zwei Agenten. Im Vergleich zu einem Modell mit einem einzigen repräsentativen Unternehmen, ist die Effektivität von Credit Policy in diesem Modell geringer. Darüber hinaus ist Credit Policy am effektivsten, wenn sie auf jene Unternehmen abzielt, die vergleichsweise schwach von Kreditbeschränkungen betroffen sind. Der zweite Aufsatz beinhaltet eine detaillierte empirische Analyse der Auswirkungen von Kreditangebotsschocks auf der Unternehmensebene. Im Rahmen sogenannter Panel-Local-Projections wird gezeigt, dass Unternehmen unterschiedlich und asymmetrisch auf solche Schocks reagieren. Die Asymmetrie in den Reaktionen der Unternehmen lässt sich nicht auf Zweitrundeneffekte über Kreditbeschränkungen zurückführen. Im dritten Aufsatz wird ein partielles Gleichgewichtsmodell entworfen, um diese empirischen Resultate zu erklären. In diesem Modell führen zeitweise bindende Beschränkungen von Finanzintermediären zu Asymmetrie in den Auswirkungen von Kreditangebotsschocks. Die Interpretation der empirischen Resultate im Rahmen dieses theoretischen Modells deutet darauf hin, dass Beschränkungen von Finanzintermediären entscheidend für die Effekte von Kreditangebotsschocks sind. Dies ist relevant für die gesamtwirtschaftlichen Auswirkungen und die Verteilungswirkung von Credit Policy. / This thesis contains three essays, which study the transmission of changes in credit supply to investment, focusing on the role of firm heterogeneity and financial frictions. The first essay theoretically investigates the role of default risk heterogeneity for the transmission of unconventional monetary policy. Specifically, I consider the effects of policies expanding the supply of credit (credit policy) in the context of a Two-Agent New-Keynesian model with financial frictions. In this model with firm heterogeneity, the effectiveness of credit policy is reduced compared to a representative firm model. Moreover, credit policy is most effective when targeted at firms that are relatively less affected by financial constraints. The second essay features a detailed empirical analysis of the firm-level effects of credit supply shocks. Using a panel local-projections analysis, I show that there is pronounced heterogeneity and asymmetry in the investment effects of these shocks. I also document that asymmetry in investment responses is not driven by differences in the strength of second round amplification effects via firm-level borrowing constraints. In the third essay, I construct a partial equilibrium model to rationalize these empirical findings. In this model, occasionally binding constraints of financial intermediaries give rise to asymmetry in the effects of credit supply shocks. Interpreted in the context of the partial equilibrium model, my empirical findings indicate that constraints of financial intermediaries are crucial for the transmission of credit supply shocks. This may have implications for the aggregate and distributional consequences of credit policy.

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