A presente tese realiza uma análise interdisciplinar dos contratos de aliança, arranjos colaborativos desenvolvidos a partir do início da década de 90, cujo objetivo é a implantação de projetos complexos industriais e de infraestrutura. Este trabalho investiga a percepção do autor de que o modelo proposto pelos contratos de aliança, em regra, promove um esvaziamento voluntário da função do contrato como ferramenta de aplicação, ainda que potencial, de sanções a comportamentos culposos, justamente com o fim de não prejudicar a construção natural de uma relação cooperativa. Busca-se ainda compreender a função desempenhada pelo contrato e pelo direito contratual, nesse contexto colaborativo, e qual a relação entre os mecanismos formais e informais de garantia de cumprimento contratual. Sustenta-se que, nesse universo, o aparato formal do contrato auxilia as ferramentas informais de enforcement, fornecendo o arcabouço de troca de informações essencial à criação endógena de confiança. Ademais, a fim de não prejudicar o ambiente cooperativo, sustenta-se a aplicação de sanções contratuais formais somente em situações excepcionais, geralmente caracterizadas pelo elemento de quebra de confiança. Sugere-se, ao longo da tese, que uma abordagem processual de regulação do contrato a qual permite sanção de comportamentos que descumpram o procedimento contratual acordado seria mais adequada do que uma abordagem estritamente substantiva que proteja a relação inicial de troca. Ao final, amparada pelas percepções construídas ao longo da pesquisa, é realizada uma reflexão jurídico-dogmática, na qual, após a contextualização jurídica dos contratos de aliança, lhes são sugeridas interpretações de aplicação de conceitos da teoria obrigacional, e de ferramentas de organização de interesses intracontratuais, como a boa-fé, o conflito de interesses e os deveres fiduciários. / This thesis conducts an interdisciplinary analysis of project alliancing, collaborative arrangements developed as of the beginning of the 90s, whose goal is the implementation of complex industrial and infrastructure projects. This work investigates the perception of the author that the model proposed by alliance contracts, in general, promotes a voluntary emptying of the role of the contract in punishing, even potentially, unintentional contractual defaults, as a means of not harming the natural construction of a cooperative relation. The work seeks to understand the role played by the contract and the contractual law, in such collaborative environment, and what is the relation between formal and informal mechanisms of contractual enforcement. It argues that, in this universe, formal contractual apparatus supports informal contractual enforcement mechanisms, providing a governance framework that allows information exchange, which is essential to the endogenous creation of trust. Moreover, in order not to jeopardize the cooperative environment, this thesis suggests the suitability of formal contractual punishment only in exceptional circumstances, often characterized by the breach of trust. It is suggested, along the thesis, that a procedural approach of contract regulation which allows punishment of behaviors that deviates from agreed contractual procedures may be more suitable than a strictly substantive approach that protects the initial exchange relation. At the end, supported by the perceptions constructed along the research, some legal-dogmatic considerations are made, in which, after legally qualifying the alliance contracts, it is suggested to it some applicative interpretations of concepts of obligational theory, and organizational tools of intracontractual interests, such as good faith, conflicts of interest and fiduciary duties.

A estabilidade pós-tratamento sempre foi um assunto delicado da ortodontia. A maioria dos pacientes e até mesmo os ortodontistas, julgam o sucesso do tratamento ortodôntico pela estabilidade dos resultados em longo prazo. Por este motivo a literatura é repleta de estudos acerca deste assunto, principalmente da recidiva do apinhamento ântero -inferior. Já o interesse pelo apinhamento ânterosuperior e sua recidiva é crescente por conta de uma maior preocupação com a estética do sorriso. Desta forma, o propósito deste estudo é comparar a recidiva do apinhamento ântero-superior em pacientes com má oclusão de Classe I e Classe II de Angle. A amostra consiste em 70 pacientes divididos em 3 grupos. O Grupo 1 apresenta 30 pacientes (12 do gênero masculino e 18 do gênero feminino) com má oclusão de Classe I, idade média inicial de 13,16 anos e tratados com extrações dos 4 primeiros pré -molares. O Grupo 2 apresenta 20 pacientes (11 do gênero masculino e 9 do gênero feminino) com má oclusão de Classe II divisão 1, idade média inicial de 12,95 anos e também tratados com extrações dos 4 primeiros pré-molares. O Grupo 3 apresenta 20 pacientes (11 do gênero masculino e 9 do gênero feminino) com má oclusão de Classe II divisão 1, idade média inicial de 13,09 anos e tratados com extrações dos 2 primeiros pré -molares superiores. Foram avaliados os modelos de estudo nas fases inicial (T1), final (T2) e no mínimo 5 anos pós -tratamento (T3) de cada pac iente. As variáveis do arco superior avaliadas e comparadas estatisticamente pela Análise de Variância (ANOVA) foram: Índice de Irregularidade de Little superior (IRLS), comprimento do arco (CAS), distância intercaninos (DICS), interpré-molares (DI2PMS) e intermolares (DIMS). Como os resultados entre os grupos não mostraram diferenças estatisticamente significantes nas fases avaliadas, a amostra foi unificada. O Teste de Correlação de Pearson e o Teste de Regressão Linear Múltipla foram utilizados para veri ficar se alguma variável estudada teria influência sobre o apinhamento nas três fases (IRLS1, IRLS2, IRLS3). Os resultados mostraram que a recidiva do apinhamento superior (IRLS3-2) é influenciada pelo apinhamento inicial (IRLS1) e que os dentes tendem a voltar à posição original. O gênero feminino apresentou mais recidiva do apinhamento ântero -superior que o gênero masculino. / The posttreatment stability was always a delicate issue in Orthodontics. Most of the orthodontic patients and even the orthodontists judge their treatment as successful based on the treatment outcomes stability in the long-term. Because of this reason the literature has a lot of studies about this issue, mostly on relapse of mandibular anterior crowding. However the interest on maxillary anterior crowding and its relapse has been growing because of the greater conscious on smile esthetic among patients. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the relapse of maxillary anterior crowding in cases presenting Angles Class I and Class II malocclusions. The experimental sample consisted of 70 patients divided into 3 groups. Group 1 comprised 30 patients (12 male; 18 female) at a mean initial age of 13.16 years, with Class I malocclusion, treated with all first premolars extraction. Group 2 comprised 20 patients (11 male; 9 female) at a mean initial age of 12.95 years, with Class II division 1 malocclusion, also treated with all first premolars extraction. Group 3 comprised 20 patients (10 male; 10 female) at a mean initial age of 13.09 years, with Class II division 1 malocclusion, treated with extraction of two maxillary first premolars. Dental casts measurements were obtained at three stages (pretreatment, posttreatment and postretention) and the variables assessed were Little Irregularity Index, maxillary arch length, intercanine, interpremolar and intermolar widths. The statistical analysis was performed by one-way ANOVA and Tukey tests if necessary (intragroup comparison) and by independent t-tests (intergroup comparison). As the results among the groups did not show statistically significant difference, the experimental sample was unified in order to inve stigate, using Pearson correlation coefficient and Multiple linear regression, if some studied variable would have influence the crowding in the three stages (IRLS1, IRLS2, IRLS3). The results showed that the maxillary crowding relapse (IRLS3-2) is influenced by the initial (IRLS1), and the teeth tend to return to their pretreatment position. The females presented more maxillary anterior crowding relapse than males.

State prison systems, particularly in the Southern US, have been overpopulated for decades with unlikely support for building new prisons which has led to overcrowding. Policy makers, however, have adopted mandatory minimum policies that include harsher sanctions for habitual offenders which exacerbated the problem of overcrowding, yet little is understood about how sentencing reform is associated with overpopulation. Using Clear and Schrantz conceptualization of prison population change, the purpose of this quantitative descriptive study was to understand how one prison system in a southern state was impacted over a 10-year period by the implementation of mandatory minimum sentencing requirements. Data were collected from publicly available resources from a state department of corrections and state law enforcement agencies related to crime rates, sentence terms, parole rates, and prison population for the years 1993 through 2013. These data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, including measures of central tendency and visual examination of line plots. Findings indicated that the state'€™s prison population did not change following the 2003 enactment of mandatory-minimum sentencing. Though no changes in prison population trends were observed, further testing may be considered to better understand the relationship between sentencing reform efforts and strengthened provisions to the laws regarding habitual felony offenders. The implications for positive social change stemming from this study includes recommendations to lawmakers to expand research and use the results as the basis of future decisions to either revise or eliminate mandatory sentencing policies taking into consideration crowding in state prisons.

台灣的社區發展推行至今，從傳統由上而下的硬體支持，轉為時下由下而上的全方位發展。社區自主發展是自發性的治理行動，藉由信任、溝通、相互尊重等意識建構當地的社會網絡雛形，進而累積龐大的社會資本，以為社區發展的基礎。社區發展並非是終點，而是個連續的過程。因此，於社區發展的集體行動過程中，需提供相當的誘因以維持集體行動的運行。 然而，依台灣社區發展推行至今的經驗觀之，不少案例顯示政府機構所提供的誘因機制，經常排擠了地方社區的自發性集體行動以及自主制度的建立。這樣的結果推翻了以往「引進物質性誘因以激勵合作行為時，既有存在的非物質性誘因並不會受到影響」的假設。 有鑑於此，本研究以珍珠社區案例為研究對象，透過文獻分析與深度訪談的方式，檢視珍珠社區於社區發展過程中，外部各項誘因的挹注對社區發展歷程產生的排擠效果，包括影響社會網絡的強健與社會資本的積累。研究成果發現，一旦涉及利益分配，不同誘因類型間的排擠效果愈明顯。同時，容易造成不同參與者間的信任網絡的崩解、裂痕，進而削弱原有設區社會資本的存量。 惟誘因導入對於維持社區發展的集體行動持續不衰實有舉足輕重之影響，故結合案例觀察成果，誘因導入社區發展之集體行動需建立於下列前提：1.培養社區認同、調整社區願景、消弭宗教衝突以充實社區社會資本2.進行跨區整合，減低對政府的依賴 3.建立獎懲及監督機制，減少搭便車情形4.領導者風範的調整與包容或可促進社區發展持續有效的集體行動運作，達成社區永續發展的目標。 / Taiwan's community development carrying out until now, the community development the infrastructure which leads from the traditional government, transfers development. The community self-development is the spontaneous government motion, because of the trust, communication, mutual respect etc. which constructs local the social network and accumulate social capital. Because community development is a process, to maintain collective action continually needs provide suitable incentives. However, according to the experience of community development in Taiwan, many cases demonstrated a phenomenon: incentives that government provides usually crowds out the community collective actions and establish independent system. Such result has overthrown the assumption : to encourage cooperation actions by lead in incentives, the existence of non-material incentives will not be affected. In view of this, a case study of Jenju Community, we will survey the crowding-out effect which injecting external incentives during the community development. Include strong social networks and social capital accumulation. Research found that when it comes to the distribution of benefits, crowding-out effect between the different types of incentives is more apparently. At the same time, it is likely to cause network of trust between different actors collapse of cracks, which would weaken the existing stock of social capital in the community. However, incentives for the maintenance of community development into collective action has a significant continuing decline of the real impact, Therefore, the results observed with the case, incentives for collective action in community development into the need to establish the following premise:1. to enrich social capital by foster community identity, community vision to adjust, to eliminate the religious conflict. 2. for cross-integration, to reduce dependence on government. 3. the establishment of incentive and monitoring mechanisms to reduce the free rider situation. 4. leadership style and tolerance of adjustment. This may facilitate sustainable community development and effective operation of collective action, to achieve sustainable community development objectives.

<p>The right to personal data is compared with the right to land. The concept of rights may be regarded as bundles of rights of which the right to use of scarce resources, the right to exclude and the right transfer rights are the most important ones. The development of Information Technology has reduced considerably the cost of using personal data leadingto an increased use of the data in the context of direct marketing by different firms. However, the use and processing of personal data may cause externalities, both positive and negative ones, on the individual to whom the data relates. This situation can be analysed with the Coase Theorem, where the transaction costs have important function. In a state of zero transaction costs the parties, firms and individuals, can make agreements of an optimal use of the personal data, independently of the assignments of rights to the personal data. Such agreements internalise further the externalities. However, in the real life the transaction costs are high meaning that the assignments of rights are most significant leading to that the externalities remain. To pass by the problem of transaction costs and externalities, zoning procedure with transference of rights can be used. The background of bundles of right to personal data together with the Coase Theorem and zoning procedure are applied to the Directive 95 /46/EC adopted by the European Union regarding the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy. This Directive may however be interpreted in different ways leading to that the assignment of rights and level of direct marketing is different between Member States.</p>

<p>Halving poverty until 2015 is something that all member states of United Nation have agreed up on by adopting the Millennium Development Goals MDG in 1991. The question asked in this paper is how much aid is needed in Tanzania, to reduce poverty by half. The method we use links estimated annual economic growth rates to the required amount of aid needed to halve poverty.</p><p>This study finds that during 2002-2015 Tanzania should receive between $37 to $43 (2002 US dollar) per year and capita depending on the underlying assumptions. Between 1994 and 2002 Tanzania received 36 dollar per year and capita so the amount of aid must at least be kept on the same level as preceding years and perhaps be increased to reach the goal of halving poverty until 2015.</p><p>Moreover, this study only calculates the cost of reaching the first MDG and not the cost of reaching the remaining goals stated in the United Nations Millennium Declaration.</p>

The right to personal data is compared with the right to land. The concept of rights may be regarded as bundles of rights of which the right to use of scarce resources, the right to exclude and the right transfer rights are the most important ones. The development of Information Technology has reduced considerably the cost of using personal data leadingto an increased use of the data in the context of direct marketing by different firms. However, the use and processing of personal data may cause externalities, both positive and negative ones, on the individual to whom the data relates. This situation can be analysed with the Coase Theorem, where the transaction costs have important function. In a state of zero transaction costs the parties, firms and individuals, can make agreements of an optimal use of the personal data, independently of the assignments of rights to the personal data. Such agreements internalise further the externalities. However, in the real life the transaction costs are high meaning that the assignments of rights are most significant leading to that the externalities remain. To pass by the problem of transaction costs and externalities, zoning procedure with transference of rights can be used. The background of bundles of right to personal data together with the Coase Theorem and zoning procedure are applied to the Directive 95 /46/EC adopted by the European Union regarding the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy. This Directive may however be interpreted in different ways leading to that the assignment of rights and level of direct marketing is different between Member States.

Halving poverty until 2015 is something that all member states of United Nation have agreed up on by adopting the Millennium Development Goals MDG in 1991. The question asked in this paper is how much aid is needed in Tanzania, to reduce poverty by half. The method we use links estimated annual economic growth rates to the required amount of aid needed to halve poverty. This study finds that during 2002-2015 Tanzania should receive between $37 to $43 (2002 US dollar) per year and capita depending on the underlying assumptions. Between 1994 and 2002 Tanzania received 36 dollar per year and capita so the amount of aid must at least be kept on the same level as preceding years and perhaps be increased to reach the goal of halving poverty until 2015. Moreover, this study only calculates the cost of reaching the first MDG and not the cost of reaching the remaining goals stated in the United Nations Millennium Declaration.

The study Packning i tid och rum (Crowding in Time and Space) is a Master Thesis in Human Geography within Geography, presented at Södertörn University College. The aim is to investigate the connections between time and space, more particularly, geographical changes over time. This is done by focusing on the Study of Land use as a phenomenon and on-going processes in demarcated areas. Distinct areas are given special interest, i.e. how they are used. The study deals with three different kinds of sites in three levels of scale: a market garden, cemeteries and a residential area. The main focus of the study is on the cemeteries. Sources to geographical data and other pieces of information are geographical systems, statistics, interviews, own observations, and photographs. This material has been worked up with simple statistic methods, map studies, and qualitative methods. The Time Geography and the New Regional Geography are used as a theoretical framework. There is an ambition to search for general understanding. The work is strongly inspired by the geographer Torsten Hägerstrand’s work and approach. It is also influenced by Systems Theory. The results confirm that there is a closer crowding of geographic objects in time and space within the cemeteries. Chorological changes could indicate similar processes at the garden center and residential area. Space is a limited resource and packing problems need to be solved. Some strategies to achieve that aim are found. At the end is discussed if closer crowding, needs more of register, measuring and restrictions and that some things are accepted to take large place in space since they are temporal. / Studien Packning i tid och rum är ett examensarbete i ämnet geografi, inriktning kulturgeografi, vid Södertörns högskola. Syftet är att utforska sambandet mellan tid och rum och då som geografiska förändringar över tiden. Det sker genom att studera markanvändning som fenomen och pågående processer i avgränsade områden. Speciellt intresse ägnas åt hur ytor disponeras. Tre olika slags områden studeras: en handelsträdgård, begravningsplatser och ett bostadsområde. Tyngdpunkten i undersökningen ligger på studiet av begravningsplatser. Geografiska data och annan information har hämtats från geografiska informationssystem, statistik, intervjuer, egna observationer och fotografier. Materialet har bearbetats med enkel statistisk metod, kartstudier och kvalitativa metoder. Som teoretisk ram används tidsgeografi och den nya regionalgeografin. Det finns en ambition att söka efter generell förståelse. Arbetet är starkt inspirerat av geografen Torsten Hägerstrands arbete och synsätt. I arbetet finns även inslag av systemteoretiskt tänkande. Resultaten visar att det sker en tätare packning av geografiska objekt i tid och rum på kyrkogårdarna. Korologiska förändringar kan tyda på liknande processer i handelsträdgården och bostadsområdet. Utrymmet är en begränsad resurs och packning är ett problem att lösa. Olika strategier för att hantera trängseln observeras. Avslutningsvis diskuteras förhållandet att ju tätare packning desto mer av registerhållning, mätning och restriktioner fordras och att vissa saker tillåts breda ut sig i rummet om de är tillfälliga.

This dissertation addresses the development of integrative modeling strategies capable of combining deterministic and stochastic, discrete and continuous, as well as multi-scale features. The first set of studies combines the purely deterministic modeling methodology of Biochemical Systems Theory (BST) with a hybrid approach, using Functional Petri Nets, which permits the account of discrete features or events, stochasticity, and different types of delays. The efficiency and significance of this combination is demonstrated with several examples, including generic biochemical networks with feedback controls, gene regulatory modules, and dopamine based neuronal signal transduction. A study expanding the use of stochasticity toward systems with small numbers of molecules proposes a rather general strategy for converting a deterministic process model into a corresponding stochastic model. The strategy characterizes the mathematical connection between a stochastic framework and the deterministic analog. The deterministic framework is assumed to be a generalized mass action system and the stochastic analogue is in the format of the chemical master equation. The analysis identifies situations where internal noise affecting the system needs to be taken into account for a valid conversion from a deterministic to a stochastic model. The conversion procedure is illustrated with several representative examples, including elemental reactions, Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics, a genetic regulatory motif, and stochastic focusing. The last study establishes two novel, particle-based methods to simulate biochemical diffusion-reaction systems within crowded environments. These simulation methods effectively simulate and quantify crowding effects, including reduced reaction volumes, reduced diffusion rates, and reduced accessibility between potentially reacting particles. The proposed methods account for fractal-like kinetics, where the reaction rate depends on the local concentrations of the molecules undergoing the reaction. Rooted in an agent based modeling framework, this aspect of the methods offers the capacity to address sophisticated intracellular spatial effects, such as macromolecular crowding, active transport along cytoskeleton structures, and reactions on heterogeneous surfaces, as well as in porous media. Taken together, the work in this dissertation successfully developed theories and simulation methods which extend the deterministic, continuous framework of Biochemical Systems Theory to allow the account of delays, stochasticity, discrete features or events, and spatial effects for the modeling of biological systems, which are hybrid and multiscale by nature.